tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1735214809568095292024-03-19T15:19:03.385+07:00Belajar Sekolah Onlineadminbelajarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05777739124848995835noreply@blogger.comBlogger18125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-173521480956809529.post-70573314494983397082010-03-01T21:31:00.000+07:002010-03-01T21:31:05.237+07:00Seri Kalkulus 1 - Limit AljabarKepada semua,<br />
<br />
berikut adalah dua modul mengenai limit aljabar, didalamnya termasuk limit berhingga dan limit tak berhingga. Maaf apabila tidak dipasang seperti biasa, karena keterbatasan kemampuan formatting blog ini. Selain itu, agar tidak memusingkan pembaca sekalian.<br />
<br />
Ini adalah modul pertama dalam bidang matematika, sebagai bukti kecintaan penulis pada ilmu ini secara mendalam. Maka, modul ini (dan hanya modul matematika) akan dilengkapi oleh latihan soal terpadu. Demikianlah kiranya bermanfaat.<br />
<br />
Seluruh pertanyaan dan pembahasan ditunggu pada: <a href="mailto:pauly.simanjuntak@gmail.com">pauly.simanjuntak@gmail.com</a><br />
<br />
Link Limit Berhingga : <a href="http://docs.google.com/fileview?id=0B9Qz6olMyMMeMTgyOGNjZDctMGMwOS00YThkLWE4NzMtODhhNGQ2OGEwZDUz&hl=en">Klik Di Sini</a><br />
Link Limit Tak Berhingga : <a href="http://docs.google.com/fileview?id=0B9Qz6olMyMMeMTY0MzBjMTEtYWRhOS00NzVjLTg1MTktMjhlMDEyYWViNDky&hl=en">Klik Di Sini</a><br />
<br />
Terimakasih<br />
<br />
Adminbelajaradminbelajarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05777739124848995835noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-173521480956809529.post-78944308073535845752009-12-03T19:02:00.001+07:002009-12-03T19:02:48.730+07:00Kesetimbangan Kimia<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type"></meta><meta content="Word.Document" name="ProgId"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Generator"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Originator"></meta><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5Ctogi%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5Ctogi%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx" rel="themeData"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5Ctogi%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml" rel="colorSchemeMapping"></link><style>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">KESETIMBANGAN KIMIA</span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p><span style="font-size: small;">D</span></o:p></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ownload Link: <a href="http://docs.google.com/fileview?id=0B9Qz6olMyMMeNDkzMWY1NmQtMjgwYy00MTAzLTlhZDgtMzExMTIzZGUzYzg1&hl=en">Kesetimbangan Kimia.pdf</a><br />
</span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pendahuluan<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kesetimbangan adalah kelanjutan dari topik mengenai laju reaksi. Disini, akan dilihat bagaimana reaksi kimia dapat berlangsung pada laju yang sama secara bolak-balik, dengan mengalami perubahan pada kondisi-kondisi awalnya.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Keadaan Seimbang<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sebelum mulai, kita perlu memahami dulu mengenai arah laju reaksi. Ada dua jenis reaksi, yaitu <b><span style="color: red;">reaksi bolak-balik (<i>reversible</i>) </span></b>dan <b><span style="color: red;">tidak bolak-balik (<i>irreversible</i>)</span></b>. Reaksi jenis terakhir ini umumnya menyebabkan perubahan fisis (nasi yang menjadi bubur, dll). Dari sini, kita dapat mendefinisikan kesetimbangan kimia.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kesetimbangan adalah <b><span style="color: red;">proses dimana sebuah reaksi <i>reversible</i> telah berhenti mengalami perubahan secara kasat mata, namun terus mengalami perubahan mikroskopis</span></b>. Ciri-cirinya:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 42.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Reaktan tidak habis bereaksi menjadi produk</span></b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> (selalu ada <i>kesetimbangan</i> dimana keduanya hadir pada saat yang sama)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 42.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Reaksi tidak pernah benar-benar selesai<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 42.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Laju reaksi maju atau mundur sama <o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 42.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hanya terjadi dalam sistem yang tertutup<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 42.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Konsentrasi akhir reaktan dan produk tidak berubah<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 42.45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Berada pada suhu yang tetap<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Contohnya, NH<sub>3</sub> dalam wadah tertutup, diletakkan pada suhu 200<sup>o</sup>C, 30 atm. Amonia tersebut akan terus terurai sampai 32.4 persen tekanan berasal dari H<sub>2</sub> dan N<sub>2</sub>. Setelah itu, kondisinya akan terus begitu. Sebenarnya, ada 3 kemungkinan hasil kesetimbangan bagi reaksi, yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Konsentrasi produk diatas reaktan<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Konsentrasi produk sama dengan reaktan<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Konsentrasi produk dibawah reaktan<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Asas Le Chatelier<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Asas Le Chatelier menentukan <b><span style="color: red;">kesetimbangan secara kualitatif</span></b>. Jadi, tidak menggunakan perhitungan. Asas ini menyatakan bahwa jika <b><span style="color: red;">terjadi perubahan pada sistem yang setimbang, maka sistem akan bereaksi sampai tercapai kesetimbangan yang baru</span></b>. Bayangkanlah sebuah jungkat-jungkit. Agar ia seimbang walaupun denga berat yang berbeda, maka kita perlu menggeser titik tumpunya. Begitulah kesetimbangan didefinisikan.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Secara umum, ia menjelaskan bahwa <b><span style="color: red;">apapun yang dilakukan pada sistem yang setimbang, sistem akan melakukan sebaliknya</span></b>. Maka, bila satu hal ditambahkan, sistem akan berusaha menguranginya. Sementara, jika satu hal dikurangi, sistem akan berusaha menggantikannya.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Perlu diingat bahwa yang <b><span style="color: red;">mempengaruhi kesetimbangan </span></b>suatu zat adalah senyawa pada <b><span style="color: red;">fase gas (g) dan larutan (aq)</span></b>. Senyawa pada fase padat murni dan cair murni tidak berpengaruh pada kesetimbangan reaksi.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ada beberapa hal yang mempengaruhi kesetimbangan, yaitu perubahan:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Konsentrasi<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Bila suatu senyawa ditambahkan, <b><span style="color: red;">kesetimbangan menjauhi sisi yang mengandung M yang lebih banyak</span></b>. Jika tidak ada perubahan mol pada gas yang bekerja, maka kesetimbangan tidak akan bergeser. Contoh<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">3Fe(s) + 4H<sub>2</sub>O(g) </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><-></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>(s) + 4H<sub>2</sub>(g)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jika Fe ditambahkan, kesetimbangan akan tetap, namun jika konsentrasi H<sub>2</sub>O naik, maka kesetimbangan akan bergerak ke kanan. Jika H<sub>2</sub> berkurang, kesetimbangan juga bergeser ke arah kanan.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Suhu<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jika temperatur naik, maka sistem akan berusaha menyerap sebagian dari energi panas. Maka, jika suhu dinaikkan, maka kesetimbangan akan bergeser ke kiri, sehingga menjadi reaksi endoterm. Jika suhu diturunkan, kesetimbangan akan bergeser ke kanan, sehingga menjadi reaksi eksoterm.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tekanan<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tekanan berbanding terbalik dengan volume</span></b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. Jika volume naik, tekanan turun (bayangkan segenggam pasir bila harus ditabur pada bidang seluas majalah, lalu luas bidang ditambah terus. Pasir akan terlihat makin jarang) dan sebaliknya. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pada hal ini, bila <b><span style="color: red;">tekanan naik</span></b>, <b><span style="color: red;">kesetimbangan akan bergerak menjauhi sisi dengan jumlah koefisien lebih besar</span></b> dan berlaku sebaliknya. Contoh:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">N<sub>2</sub>(g) + 3H<sub>2</sub>(g) </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><-> </span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2NH<sub>3</sub>(g)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Bila tekanan, kesetimbangan akan bergeser ke arah kanan, karena total koefisien hanya 2, dibanding pada ruas kiri. Namun, jika <b><span style="color: red;">total koefisien kedua sisi sama</span></b> (Co: 2HI(g) </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><-> </span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">H<sub>2</sub>(g) +I<sub>2</sub>(g) ) <b><span style="color: red;">perubahan tekanan tidak berpengaruh pada kesetimbangan</span></b>.</span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Katalis<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Penambahan katalis tidak mempengaruhi kesetimbangan kimia.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tetapan Kesetimbangan (K<sub>c</sub> dan K<sub>p</sub>)<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Asas Le Chatelier tidak menunjukkan kedudukan kesetimbangan dalam angka, namun ada satu cara untuk menyatakannya. Hal itu disebut <b><span style="color: red;">Hukum Aksi Massa</span></b>. Ia <b><span style="color: red;">menyatakan perbandingan antara konsentrasi produk terhadap konsentrasi reaktan</span></b>. Maka:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pada reaksi aA(g) + bB(aq) + cC(l) </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><-> </span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">dD(g) + eE(aq) + fF(s) , berlaku rumus,<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; position: relative; top: 12pt;"><img height="42" src="file:///C:/Users/togi/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="96" /></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> @:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">K<sub>c</sub> adalah tetapan kesetimbangan<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[A], [B], [C], [D] adalah konsentrasi masing-masing senyawa<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a, b, c, dan d adalah koefisien masing-masing senyawa dalam reaksi<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Catatan:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Perhatikan bahwa fase padat dan cair murni tidak dimasukkan<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Reaksi dibuat hanya untuk contoh, walaupun hukum itu berlaku pada semua macam reaksi<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Hukum ini hanya berlaku pada reaksi setara dalam suhu tetap<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Besaran K<sub>c</sub> tidak terpengaruh perubahan suhu, tekanan, dan katalis<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Bila <b><span style="color: red;">seluruh reaksi terdiri dari gas</span></b>, akan lebih mudah <b><span style="color: red;">menggunakan tetapan</span></b> yang dihitung berdasarkan <b><span style="color: red;">tekanan (K<sub>p</sub>)</span></b> dibanding konsentrasi (K<sub>c</sub>). Untuk itu, digunakan tekanan parsial sebagai pengganti konsentrasi. Pada reaksi:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">aA(g) + bB(g) </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><-> </span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">cC(g) + dD(g)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mencari tekanan parsial :</span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; position: relative; top: 10.5pt;"><img height="30" src="file:///C:/Users/togi/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="110" /></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> @:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">P<sub>T </sub> adalah tekanan total<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">P<sub>A </sub>adalah tekanan parsial A<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">n<sub>B </sub>dan n<sub>A</sub> adalah mol masing-masing senyawa<sub> </sub><o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Setelah itu: </span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; position: relative; top: 11pt;"><img height="36" src="file:///C:/Users/togi/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="100" /></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Catatan Subbab:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pada reaksi endoterm, K<sub>c</sub> dan K<sub>p</sub> turun jika suhu naik, berlaku sebaliknya<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pada reaksi eksoterm, K<sub>c</sub> dan K<sub>p </sub>naik seiring dengan suhu, berlaku sebaliknya<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Segala perhitungan yang melibatkan K<sub>c</sub> dan K<sub>p</sub> akan dimasukkan dalam bundel kimia, yang akan dilepas pada tengah tahun 2010</span></b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. Hubungi <a href="mailto:pauly.simanjuntak@gmail.com">pauly.simanjuntak@gmail.com</a> untuk keterangan.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sumber:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Suyatno, dkk. <i>Kimia Untuk SMA/MA Kelas XI</i>. 2007. Jakarta: Grasindo </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Purba, Michael. <i>Kimia 2A Untuk SMA Kelas XI</i>. 2006. Jakarta: Erlangga</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Toh, CS. <i>A-Level Study Guide-Chemistry-Edition 3.0.3 for Higher 2</i>. 2009. Singapore: Step-by-Step</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Goldberg, David E. 2005.<i>Schaum’s Outlines: Kimia Untuk Pemula Edisi Ketiga</i>. Jakarta: Erlangga<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Bresnick, Stephen D. 1996. <i>Intisari Kimia Umum</i>. Jakarta: Hipokrates</span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Kirimkan semua pertanyaan pada: <i>pauly.simanjuntak@gmail.com</i></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
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adminbelajarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05777739124848995835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-173521480956809529.post-78999427978549063262009-12-02T20:58:00.002+07:002009-12-02T21:44:49.932+07:00Laju Reaksi<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type"></meta><meta content="Word.Document" name="ProgId"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Generator"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 12" name="Originator"></meta><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5Ctogi%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5Ctogi%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx" rel="themeData"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5Ctogi%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml" rel="colorSchemeMapping"></link><style>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;">LAJU REAKSI</span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: small;">Download Link:<a href="http://docs.google.com/fileview?id=0B9Qz6olMyMMeZmNkYmNlNzYtY2FmOC00YTM1LWE2ZWEtMGJiMTk1YWU1OTdh&hl=en">Laju Reaksi.pdf</a></span> </span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pendahuluan<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Laju reaksi merupakan proses yang dapat diamati pada kehidupan sehari-hari. Proses ini memungkinkan kita menentukan pilihan tindakan terhadap waktu yang ada.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Laju Reaksi<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Laju reaksi adalah cara untuk menyatakan kecepatan terjadinya reaksi kimia. Dalam bahasa lain, ia didefinisikan sebagai <b><span style="color: red;">laju pengurangan konsentrasi reaktan</span></b> atau laju <b><span style="color: red;">penambahan konsentrasi produk</span></b> (dalam satuan waktu, biasanya detik). Maka dapat dikatakan, ini menyatakan seberapa cepat terbentuk produk atau habisnya reaktan. Satuannya biasanya M/s atau mol/ dm<sup>3 </sup>s. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Laju pada reaksi <i>‘aA + bB -> cC’</i> dapat dicari dengan<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; position: relative; top: 9pt;"><img height="30" src="file:///C:/Users/togi/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="121" /></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> @ a, b, dan c adalah koefisien reaksi<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">V<sub>A, </sub>v<sub>B, </sub>dan v<sub>C</sub> dapat dicari dengan<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; position: relative; top: 9pt;"><img height="30" src="file:///C:/Users/togi/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="192" /></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> dan </span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; position: relative; top: 9pt;"><img height="30" src="file:///C:/Users/togi/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="74" /></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> @:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">V<sub>A, </sub>V<sub>B</sub>, dan V<sub>C</sub> adalah laju reaksi, dengan satuan Ms<sup>-1</sup><o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Δ[A], Δ[B], dan Δ[C] adalah perubahan konsentrasi masing-masing senyawa<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Δt adalah perubahan satuan waktu<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 45pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -45pt;"><i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Catatan: tanda negatif diberi untuk reaktan (laju penguraian) sementara positif untuk produk (laju pembentukan)<o:p></o:p></span></i><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Perlu diingat bahwa <b><span style="color: red;">laju reaksi berbanding terbalik dengan waktu</span></b>, atau: </span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; position: relative; top: 9pt;"><img height="30" src="file:///C:/Users/togi/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="34" /></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. Ingat juga bahwa <b><span style="color: red;">besarnya ΔH tidak mempengaruhi laju reaksi</span></b>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ada beberapa hal yang mempengaruhi proses laju reaksi, yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sifat Reaktan<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Zat seperti CCl<sub>4</sub> tidak terbakar pada oksigen, sementara CH<sub>4</sub> terbakar dengan baik. Faktor ini tidak dapat dikendalikan.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tekanan Pada Reaktan Gas<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Semakin tinggi tekanan pada reaktan yang berbentuk gas, maka semakin besar lajunya. Tekanan berbanding terbalik dengan volume. Pada mol yang sama, jika volume diperkecil maka M akan semakin besar. Hubungannya akan dilihat pada poin 6.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Keberadaan Katalis<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Katalis adalah zat yang ditambahkan pada reaksi, namun tidak mempengaruhi hasil reaksi maupun perubahan entalpi reaksi tersebut. Jadi, perubahan yang ada tidak permanen. Ia berguna untuk mempercepat terjadinya reaksi. Katalis yang digunakan ditulis kecil di atas tanda panah. Contoh yang sering digunakan adalah Pt ada Ni. Mengenai ini, akan dibahas pada bagian Teori Tumbukan.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Keadaan Ukuran Partikel</span></b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">/Luas Permukaan<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Luas permukaan, atau keadaan ukuran partikel memiliki pengaruh pada laju reaksi. Semakin besar bidang sentuh, semakin cepat reaksi. Maka, <b><span style="color: red;">serbuk</span></b> Fe akan <b><span style="color: red;">lebih cepat </span></b>dari <b><span style="color: red;">kepingan</span></b> Fe, yang akan <b><span style="color: red;">lebih cepat </span></b>dari <b><span style="color: red;">padatan/balok</span></b> Fe pada <b><span style="color: red;">massa yang sama</span></b> untuk setiap bentuk.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Suhu<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Semakin tinggi suhu, semakin cepat laju terjadi. Untuk menghitung ini, digunakan rumus:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; position: relative; top: 5.5pt;"><img height="30" src="file:///C:/Users/togi/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="93" /></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> @:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">V<sub>2</sub> adalah laju yang dicari<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">V<sub>1</sub> adalah laju awal<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">x adalah kelipatan kecepatan pada perubahan suhu<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">ΔT adalah perubahan suhu<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a adalah kelipatan perubahan suhu<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Catatan: peningkatan <b><span style="color: red;">suhu 10<sup>o</sup>C akan meningkatkan laju menjadi 2 kali laju</span></b> awal<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Konsentrasi Reaktan<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Konsentrasi reaktan dan pengaruhnya akan dibahas pada bagian berikut.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Konsentrasi Reaktan<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Konsentrasi adalah konsep penting. Untuk, perlu dipahami mengenai molaritas terlebih dahulu. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Molaritas</span></b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> adalah satuan <b><span style="color: red;">konsentrasi senyawa</span></b>. Ia merupakan <b><span style="color: red;">mol senyawa dibagi volume</span></b> total senyawa (atau volume total wadah isi senyawa) dalam liter. Ia dilambangkan dengan M, dengan satuan mol L<sup>-1</sup>.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Molaritas, atau konsentrasi, berpengaruh penting pada laju. Semakin besar konsentrasi, semakin besar laju reaksi. Untuk menyatakan hubungannya, dibuat persamaan laju reaksi. Bentuk umumnya adalah:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; position: relative; top: 5.5pt;"><img height="22" src="file:///C:/Users/togi/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="122" /></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> @:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">V adalah laju reaksi (Ms<sup>-1</sup>)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">K adalah tetapan laju reaksi (satuan tergantung kondisi)<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[x], [y] , dan [z] adalah konsentrasi reaktan<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">a, b, dan c adalah orde reaksi <o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Orde reaksi adalah bilangan yang menyatakan pengaruh konsentrasi reaktan pada laju reaksi. Orde reaksi dapat dicari melalui data percobaan, yang hanya bisa didapat melalui percobaan. Dalam soal, umumnya data percobaan telah diberikan. Untuk itu, gunakan rumus:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;"><img height="45" src="file:///C:/Users/togi/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="106" /></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dimana indeks 1 dan 2 menandakan untuk membandingkan hasil 2 percobaan yang berbeda. Sebagai tips, <b><span style="color: red;">pilihlah</span></b> <b><span style="color: red;">percobaan dimana salah satu reaktan memiliki nilai M yang sama</span></b>. Hal itu akan memudahkan mencari orde reaktan satunya. Orde total reaksi didapat dengan menjumlah seluruh orde reaktan.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dari situ, dapat diambil 5 jenis orde reaksi, yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Orde 0 <o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Tidak ada reaksi berorde 0, namun ada reaktan berorde 0. Artinya, perubahan konsentrasinya tidak berpengaruh pada laju reaksi. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Orde 1<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Orde reaksi 1, berarti laju reaksi berjalan sesuai konsentrasi reaksinya. Biasanya terjadi pada reaksi dengan reaktan hanya 1.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Orde 2 atau lebih<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Laju reaksi meningkat secara eksponen sesuai konsentrasi reaktan. Kebanyakan reaksi masuk dalam kategori ini.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Orde 1 ‘bayangan’<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Umumnya terjadi pada reaksi hidrolisis, dimana H<sub>2</sub>O ada pada kadar yang berlimpah sehingga perubahan konsentrasi tidak berpengaruh pada laju reaksi. Contoh:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">CH<sub>3</sub>CO<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>(aq) + H<sub>2</sub>O(l) -> CH<sub>3</sub>CO<sub>2</sub>H(aq) + C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH(aq) memiliki orde reaksi 1, karena keberadaan H<sub>2</sub>O tidak mempengaruhi laju reaksi.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Orde antara 0 dan 1<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Laju reaksi ada pada akar dari konsentrasi reaktan terkait.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Jika orde telah diketahui, maka nilai k dapat ditentukan. Caranya dengan <b><span style="color: red;">mensubstitusi salah satu nilai dari hasil percobaan pada persamaan laju reaksi</span></b> yang telah diketahui ordenya. Dari sana, dapat ditentukan besar k serta satuannya (untuk reaksi berorde 2, satuan k adalah M<sup>-2</sup>s<sup>-1</sup>).<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Teori Tumbukan<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Teori tumbukan (<i>collision theory) </i>menyatakan bahwa <b><span style="color: red;">untuk terjadi suatu reaksi</span></b>, maka molekul-molekul reaktan perlu <b><span style="color: red;">bertabrakan dengan energi yang cukup </span></b>dan<b><span style="color: red;"> arah yang benar</span></b>. Hal itu akan memutus ikatan, lalu menciptakan tahap <i>activated complex</i>, sehingga mungkin terbentuk senyawa produk. Energi minimal itu disebut energi aktivasi (E<sub>a</sub>), sebagai kunci terjadi reaksi. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Reaksi ini dapat terjadi secara eksoterm maupun endoterm. Namun, <b><span style="color: red;">energi aktivasi</span></b> yang dibutuhkan pasti <b><span style="color: red;">lebih tinggi</span></b> dari <b><span style="color: red;">tingkat energi awal, maupun tingkat energi akhir</span></b> (jika reaksi tersebut endoterm). Bayangkan bila tidak ada E<sub>a</sub>, maka semua reaksi akan terjadi seketika.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Fungsi katalis</span></b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> disini adalah memberikan jalan alternatif bagi reaktan dengan <b><span style="color: red;">menurunkan nilai E<sub>a</sub></span></b> dari reaksi. Maka, <b><span style="color: red;">laju reaksi akan semakin besar</span></b>. Pada konsentrasi yang tetap, yang berubah adalah nilai k dari reaksi tersebut.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pemanfaatan Katalis dalam Kehidupan<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Enzim dalam tubuh adalah contoh katalis murni. Dengan enzim amilase pada ludah, kita bisa mencerna karbohidrat yang kita makan dengan lebih cepat. Selain itu, katalis memegang peranan penting dalam industri. Yang paling terkenal, <b><span style="color: red;">Proses Haber-Bosch</span></b> (pembuatan <b><span style="color: red;">amonia</span></b>) dan <b><span style="color: red;">Proses Kontak </span></b>(pembuatan <b><span style="color: red;">asam sulfat </span></b>) menggunakan katalis. Katalis seperti Ni juga ditambahkan pada margarin (karena itu, saya kadang berpikir untuk makan margarin). Katalis digunakan juga untuk menyaring udara pada knalpot dan cerobong asap.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sumber:<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Retnowati, Priscilla. 2007. <i>Seribupena Kimia untuk SMA Kelas XI</i>. Jakarta: Erlangga <o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Suyatno, dkk. <i>Kimia Untuk SMA/MA Kelas XI</i>. 2007. Jakarta: Grasindo</span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Purba, Michael. <i>Kimia 2A Untuk SMA Kelas XI</i>. 2006. Jakarta: Erlangga</span><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Toh, CS. <i>A-Level Study Guide-Chemistry-Edition 3.0.3 for Higher 2</i>. 2009. Singapore: Step-by-Step<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Goldberg, David E. 2005.<i>Schaum’s Outlines: Kimia Untuk Pemula Edisi Ketiga</i>. Jakarta: Erlangga<o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Kirimkan semua pertanyaan pada: <i>pauly.simanjuntak@gmail.com</i><o:p></o:p></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><br />
adminbelajarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05777739124848995835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-173521480956809529.post-44948370040253205902009-11-03T22:55:00.006+07:002009-11-04T17:07:56.223+07:00Menghitung Perubahan Entalpi<title></title><meta content="OpenOffice.org 3.1 (Win32)" name="GENERATOR"></meta><meta content="0;0" name="CREATED"></meta><meta content="0;0" name="CHANGED"></meta><style type="text/css">
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<div align="CENTER" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Castellar,serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><u><b>MENGHITUNG PERUBAHAN ENTALPI</b></u></span></span><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">Link Download: <a href="http://docs.google.com/fileview?id=0B9Qz6olMyMMeZTNjNzc3NjktMmMzZi00NTRmLWEyNzItYzJjMzdjMzcwZmQx&hl=en">Menghitung Perubahan Entalpi.pdf</a><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u><b>Pendahuluan</b></u></span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Setelah mengetahui nilai entalpi dapat berubah, beserta berbagai kategorinya, maka perlu diketahui cara mencari besar perubahan tersebut, sehingga dapat diukur kekuatan sebuah reaksi.</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u><b>Macam-Macam Cara Pengukuran</b></u></span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Secara umum, upaya pencarian dapat dibagi menjadi dua jenis: eksperimen dan teoritis. Bila dijabarkan, ada 4 metode yaitu:</span></span><br />
<br />
</div><ol><li style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Eksperimen</span></span></li>
<li style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Berdasarkan hukum Hess</span></span></li>
<li style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Menggunakan data entalpi pembentukan standar</span></span></li>
<li style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Menggunakan data energi ikatan</span></span></li>
</ol><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Semuanya akan dijabarkan satu-persatu.</span></span><br />
</div><ol><li><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u><b>Eksperimen</b></u></span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;"><div style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Alat yang digunakan untuk mengukur perubahan entalpi disebut <span style="color: #ff3333;">kalorimeter</span>. Alat ini membuat sistem terisolasi, sehingga dapat mengukur dengan tepat. Ada 2 <span style="color: #ff3333;">jenis</span> kalorimeter, yaitu <span style="color: #ff3333;">kalorimeter bom</span> dan yang <span style="color: #ff3333;">sederhana</span>. </span></span> <br />
</div></div></div></div></div></div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: #ff3333;">Kalorimeter bom</span> adalah kalorimeter yang <span style="color: #ff3333;">menggunakan bilik pemantik untuk membakar benda padat</span> yang akan diuji. Di luar tempat pembakaran diisi air (atau larutan lainnya). Perubahan entalpi dilihat mengikuti perubahan suhu. Maka, besar perubahan entalpi dihitung dengan:</span></span><br />
</div><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Dimana dan </span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: #ff3333;">Kalorimeter sederhana</span>, berbeda dengan bom, tidak melakukan pembakaran, namun hanya <span style="color: #ff3333;">mengisolasi larutan</span> yang bereaksi dan membiarkannya bereaksi sementara perubahan suhunya diukur. Besar perubahannya dihitung dengan:</span></span><br />
</div><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Kapasitas kalorimeter dapat diabaikan, karena kapasitas panasnya kecil.</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><i><span style="font-size: small;">Catatan:Ingatlah bahwa c</span><sub><span style="font-size: small;">air</span></sub><span style="font-size: small;">= 4.18 J/gK~4.2 J/gK, walau K(</span></i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;">kelvin)</span></span><i><span style="font-size: small;"> dapat disamakan dengan C</span></i><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;">(celcius)</span></span><i><span style="font-size: small;"> tanpa memakai perubahan nilai.</span></i></span><br />
<br />
</div><br />
<br />
<br />
</li>
<li><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u><b>Berdasarkan hukum Hess</b></u></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Hukum Hess menyatakan bahwa <span style="color: #ff3333;">reaksi dapat terdiri dari penjumlahan beberapa reaksi lain</span>. Maka, besar <span style="color: #ff3333;">perubahan entalpi akan sama</span>, baik jika reaksi berlangsung 1 tahap atau melalui tahap lainnya. Maka:</span></span><br />
<br />
<br />
<div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Dimana n adalah tahapan reaksi ke-n</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Contoh:</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Perhatikan reaksi pada diagram berikut!</span></span><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirOI186dxsuZ_OophrLej8W8V2egM7UIWzPX4LZ01IW-wgDK7yNM01aDApMaJxwMaGPsADofvhI0suP28bdx0enH1jsGBugxjtmERJ5mhNpoSe3P2DfYKHYmRUqk8Mvw6Vk_p5aahoTbux/s1600-h/Hukum+Hess.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirOI186dxsuZ_OophrLej8W8V2egM7UIWzPX4LZ01IW-wgDK7yNM01aDApMaJxwMaGPsADofvhI0suP28bdx0enH1jsGBugxjtmERJ5mhNpoSe3P2DfYKHYmRUqk8Mvw6Vk_p5aahoTbux/s320/Hukum+Hess.jpg" /></a><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">S</span><span style="font-size: small;"><i>(s)</i></span><span style="font-size: small;"> + 3/2 O</span><sub><span style="font-size: small;">2</span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><i>(g)</i></span><span style="font-size: small;"> -> SO</span><sub><span style="font-size: small;">3</span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><i>(g)</i></span><span style="font-size: small;"> </span><span style="font-size: small;">ΔH=-395.7 kJmol</span><sup><span style="font-size: small;">-1</span></sup></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">SO</span><sub><span style="font-size: small;">2</span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><i>(g)</i></span><span style="font-size: small;"> -> S</span><span style="font-size: small;"><i>(s)</i></span><span style="font-size: small;"> + O</span><sub><span style="font-size: small;">2</span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><i>(g)</i></span><span style="font-size: small;"> ΔH=+298.6 kJmol</span><sup><span style="font-size: small;">-1 +</span></sup><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></span> <br />
</div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">SO</span><sub><span style="font-size: small;">2</span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><i>(g)</i></span><span style="font-size: small;"> + O</span><sub><span style="font-size: small;">2</span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><i>(g)</i></span><span style="font-size: small;"> -> SO</span><sub><span style="font-size: small;">3</span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><i>(g)</i></span><span style="font-size: small;"> ΔH=-98.8 kJmol</span><sup><span style="font-size: small;">-1</span></sup></span><br />
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</div><br />
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</li>
<li><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u><b>Menggunakan data entalpi pembentukan standar</b></u></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Cara ini adalah turunan dari hukum Hess. Cara ini melihat </span><span style="color: #ff3333;"><span style="font-size: small;">nilai entalpi pemecahan dan penyatuan dari masing-masing senyawa</span></span><span style="font-size: small;">. Data H</span><sup><span style="font-size: small;">o</span></sup><sub><span style="font-size: small;">f</span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"> dapat digunakan pula untuk mengetahui besar perubahan entalpi. Perhatikan diagram berikut:</span></span></li>
</ol><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiba1ZVrT0vu5iBrIptz5xplJVmrXGwx1WBCVk62LzONFxTwXwm2EvmwnLt9np2p8VEI5sEnoot7jCiumfDHAflIrPzoEiSlNk0NONml3-PtUe5saeDIP6Z4bRN-nSY1ENaeH72HRn1luQZ/s1600-h/Penguraian+Entalpi.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiba1ZVrT0vu5iBrIptz5xplJVmrXGwx1WBCVk62LzONFxTwXwm2EvmwnLt9np2p8VEI5sEnoot7jCiumfDHAflIrPzoEiSlNk0NONml3-PtUe5saeDIP6Z4bRN-nSY1ENaeH72HRn1luQZ/s320/Penguraian+Entalpi.jpg" /></a><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;">Δ</span>H<sub>1</sub> adalah entalpi penguraian CaO</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;">Δ</span>H<sub>2</sub> adalah entalpi penguraian H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub></span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;">Δ</span>H<sub>3</sub> adalah entalpi pembentukan CaSO<sub>4</sub></span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;">Δ</span>H<sub>4</sub> adalah entalpi pembentukan H<sub>2</sub>O</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> Maka, <span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;">Δ</span>H dihitung dengan:</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> <span style="color: black;"><i>Catatan: Ingatlah bahwa nilai </i></span><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Δ</span></span><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-style: normal;">H</span></span><span style="color: black;"><sup><span style="font-style: normal;">o</span></sup></span><span style="color: black;"><sub><span style="font-style: normal;">f</span></sub></span><span style="color: black;"><sub><i> </i></sub></span><span style="color: black;"><i>adalah kebalikan dari </i></span><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Δ</span></span><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-style: normal;">H</span></span><span style="color: black;"><sup><span style="font-style: normal;">o</span></sup></span><span style="color: black;"><sub><span style="font-style: normal;">d</span></sub></span><span style="color: black;"><i>. Berlaku sebaliknya</i></span></span></span><br />
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</div><ol start="4"><li><span style="color: black;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><u><b>Menggunakan data energi ikatan</b></u></span></span></span><br />
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<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;">Setiap ikatan antara satu atom dengan atom lainnya pada senyawa memiliki </span><span style="color: #ff3333;">nilai energi ikatan</span><span style="color: black;"> tertentu.</span><span style="color: #ff3333;"> </span>Nilai ini <span style="color: #ff3333;">menyatakan kekuatan ikatan</span>, sehingga <span style="color: #ff3333;">tidak terpengaruh pada perubahan</span> yang terjadi pada senyawa (terbentuk atau terurai). Dilambangkan dengan D. </span></span> <br />
</div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Untuk menghitung nilai ΔH pada suatu senyawa, lihat ada berapa banyak ikatan yang ada. Ikatan rangkap tetap dihitung sebagai satu. Ingat juga bahwa satu <span style="color: #ff3333;">atom yang memiliki banyak pasangan dapat dihitung beberapa kali</span>. Contoh, bila terjadi reaksi hingga CH<sub>4</sub> pecah dan D<sub>C-H</sub>=410 kJmol<sup>-1</sup>. Gambarlah diagramnya, maka anda melihat bahwa C berikatan dengan 4 atom H. Maka, ΔH dalam proses ini adalah ΔH=4 x 410 = 1640 kJ mol<sup>-1</sup> (ingat, ada 4 ikatan C dengan H).</span></span><br />
</div><div style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Total nilai ΔH dihitung dengan :</span></span><br />
</div><div align="CENTER" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Berikut beberapa nilai D:</span></span><br />
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</ol><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjK0wjZHXcD25kniser7lhIkJrx2Yx0WmGCrH5uxxQMNS-tr0uQ9acWgFkstHSStjuvjxAE3gq97P-7AWQatRn5bb88L0VXd8-4Bw-EAdQMhN9h5ZmaQM8ozFcwyNd7yfyoe6PRk8hIchGE/s1600-h/Tabel+Energi+Ikatan.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjK0wjZHXcD25kniser7lhIkJrx2Yx0WmGCrH5uxxQMNS-tr0uQ9acWgFkstHSStjuvjxAE3gq97P-7AWQatRn5bb88L0VXd8-4Bw-EAdQMhN9h5ZmaQM8ozFcwyNd7yfyoe6PRk8hIchGE/s320/Tabel+Energi+Ikatan.jpg" /></a><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=173521480956809529" name="DDE_LINK3"></a> <span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Sumber:</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Tahoma,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Bresnick, Stephen D. ,M.D. 1996. </span><span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"><i>Intisari Kimia Umum</i></span><span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">. Jakarta: Hipokrates</span></span></span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Suyatno, dkk. <i>Kimia Untuk SMA/MA Kelas XI</i>. 2007. Jakarta: Grasindo</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Purba, Michael. <i>Kimia 2A Untuk SMA Kelas XI</i>. 2006. Jakarta: Erlangga</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Toh, CS. <i>A-Level Study Guide-Chemistry-Edition 3.0.3 for Higher 2</i>. 2009. Singapore: Step-by-Step</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">http://www.chem-is-try.org</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Kirimkan semua pertanyaan pada: pauly.simanjuntak@gmail.com</span></span><br />
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adminbelajarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05777739124848995835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-173521480956809529.post-79964821645153676722009-10-20T21:12:00.004+07:002009-10-31T11:36:44.310+07:00TERMOKIMIA & ENTALPI<div align="CENTER" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><i><u><b>TERMOKIMIA & ENTALPI</b></u></i></span></span><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">Download link: <a href="http://docs.google.com/fileview?id=0B9Qz6olMyMMeMmEwMTU1MDAtNDE5OC00ZDBkLWE5OWMtODcxMWQ2NzBjMTJj&hl=en">Termokimia & Entalpi</a><qtlend></qtlend><br />
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</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i><b>Pendahuluan</b></i></span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Pada tulisan ini akan dibahas mengenai reaksi kimia dan hubungannya dengan panas dan energi yang berubah saat terjadi reaksi tersebut.</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i><b>Sistem & Lingkungan</b></i></span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Untuk mengerti termokimia, perlu dipahami konsep sistem dan lingkungan. Pertama, kita akan membahas mengenai sistem. <span style="color: #ff3333;"><b>Sistem</b></span> adalah reaksi atau tempat yang dijadikan <span style="color: #ff3333;"><b>titik pusat perhatian</b></span>. <span style="color: #ff3333;"><b>Lingkungan</b></span> adalah semua hal yang menunjang sistem, atau dengan kata lain, <span style="color: #ff3333;"><b>semua hal di luar sistem</b></span>. Contohnya, bila anda melihat segelas air, maka segelas air adalah sistem, sementara ruangan dan semua lainnya adalah lingkungan. </span></span> <br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Ada 3 jenis sistem, berdasarkan transformasi materi dan energinya, yaitu:</span></span><br />
</div><ol style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: #ff3333;"><b>Sistem terbuka</b></span>, yaitu sistem dimana pertukaran materi dan energi keluar masuk sistem dapat dilakukan. Contohnya, air dalam gelas terbuka.</span></span><br />
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<li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: #ff3333;"><b>Sistem tertutup</b></span>, dimana hanya ada pertukaran energi atau materi satu arah. Contohnya, air panas dalam gelas tertutup, dimana hanya panas (energi) dari dalam gelas yang bergerak ke arah lingkungan.</span></span><br />
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<li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: #ff3333;"><b>Sistem terisolasi</b></span>, yaitu dimana tidak terjadi pertukaran materi dan energi sama sekali. Contohnya, air dalam termos.</span></span></li>
</ol><div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i><b>Entalpi</b></i></span></span><br />
</div><div style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Entalpi, seperti asal kata Yunaninya, berarti <span style="color: #ff3333;"><b>kandungan energi pada suatu benda</b></span>. Jika kita bayangkan kita melihat sebuah ember yang kita tidak tahu volumenya dan berisi air. Seperti banyak air yang tidak kita tahu, <span style="color: #ff3333;"><b>besar entalpi juga tidak kita ketahui</b></span>. Namun, jika dari ambil atau beri air sebanyak satu gayung dari/pada ember tersebut, kita tahu perubahan isinya. Begitulah <span style="color: #ff3333;"><b>kita tahu perubahan entalpi</b></span>.</span></span><br />
</div><div style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><br />
</div><div style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Entalpi dilambangkan dengan huruf H (terkadang dengan h). Kita dapat mengetahui perubahan entalpi pada suatu reaksi dengan:</span></span><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.do" name="DDE_LINK2"></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">ΔH = H</span></span><sub><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">produk</span></span></span></sub><sub><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></sub><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">- H</span></span><sub><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">reaktan</span></span></span></sub></span></span><br />
</div><div style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Dimana semuanya terdapat dalam satuan J atau kal.</span></span><br />
</div><div style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Jika kita hubungkan entalpi dengan hukum termodinamika yang pertama, kita akan tahu bahwa entalpi secara global tidak pernah berubah. Energi hanya bergerak, namun tidak bertambah atau berkurang. Lebih jauh akan dibahas dalam tulisan </span></span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">Pengayaan Termokimia</span></i><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">.</span></span></span></span><br />
</div><div style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i><b>Reaksi Eksoterm dan Endoterm</b></i></span></span><br />
</div><div style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Reaksi dibagi menjadi dua jenis, sesuai dengan arah perpindahan energi. Mereka adalah : (a) reaksi eksoterm dan (b) reaksi endoterm. Kita akan membahas yang pertama dahulu.</span></span><br />
</div><ol style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i><b>Reaksi Eksoterm</b></i></span></span><br />
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.do" name="DDE_LINK"></a> <span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Reaksi eksoterm, adalah kejadian dimana panas mengalir dari </span><span style="color: #ff3333;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>sistem ke lingkungan</b></span></span><span style="font-size: small;">. Maka, </span><span style="color: #ff3333;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>ΔH < O</b></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"> dan suhu produk akan lebih kecil dari reaktan. Ciri lain, suhu sekitarnya akan lebih tinggi dari suhu awal. </span></span> <br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Contoh</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">C(s)+O</span><sub><span style="font-size: small;">2 </span></sub><span style="font-size: small;">-> CO</span><sub><span style="font-size: small;">2</span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"> (g) ΔH=-393.4 kJ mol</span><sup><span style="font-size: small;">-1</span></sup></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><sup><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></sup></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Diagram reaksi eksoterm berupa: </span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWYDQSEUC4S1NXZLGwVjMFiqKwuh8msoQeDKfWZuWdBMYpy79gNjWRSTO_2lnDvwpke3_9f6pROHj6WRAPZMVLTrAc-ve6iWBetyiQzSwLHdckbTaF0IAQXxvL_6pLqMQ6YqYxsLU_9R6G/s1600-h/Diagram+Eksoterm+II.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="224" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWYDQSEUC4S1NXZLGwVjMFiqKwuh8msoQeDKfWZuWdBMYpy79gNjWRSTO_2lnDvwpke3_9f6pROHj6WRAPZMVLTrAc-ve6iWBetyiQzSwLHdckbTaF0IAQXxvL_6pLqMQ6YqYxsLU_9R6G/s320/Diagram+Eksoterm+II.jpg" width="277" /></a><br />
</div></div><br />
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</li>
</ol><ol start="2" style="text-align: left;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSo6lMEI8K29U22dzkhNW6-zZxytVnBqKxKoABs51Itc89Zj0WskVuqRiDd1N3mCqxZqaOc6rmOmmtQMzgflDW-xC2isDK0oC1x7_vh-S1cuSaiLZ5SZTPuVxrAs-kXCc1vNd4QYjon0kc/s1600-h/Diagram+Eksoterm+I.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="226" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSo6lMEI8K29U22dzkhNW6-zZxytVnBqKxKoABs51Itc89Zj0WskVuqRiDd1N3mCqxZqaOc6rmOmmtQMzgflDW-xC2isDK0oC1x7_vh-S1cuSaiLZ5SZTPuVxrAs-kXCc1vNd4QYjon0kc/s320/Diagram+Eksoterm+I.jpg" width="264" /></a>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i><b>Reaksi Endoterm</b></i></span></span><br />
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Reaksi endoterm adalah kejadian dimana panas </span><span style="color: #ff3333;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>diserap oleh sistem dari lingkungan</b></span></span><span style="font-size: small;">. Maka, </span><span style="color: #ff3333;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>ΔH > 0</b></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"> dan suhu sekitarnya turun.</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Contoh:</span></span><br />
</div><br />
<br />
</li>
</ol><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">H</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">2</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">(g) + I</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">2</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">(g) -> 2HI(g) ΔH=51.9 kJ mol<sup>-1</sup></span></span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Ba(OH)</span><sub><span style="font-size: small;">2</span></sub><span style="font-size: small;">(s) + 2NH</span><sub><span style="font-size: medium;">4</span></sub><span style="font-size: small;">Cl (s) -> BaCl</span><sub><span style="font-size: small;">2</span></sub><span style="font-size: small;">(l) + 2NH</span><sub><span style="font-size: small;">3</span></sub><span style="font-size: small;">(g) + 2H</span><sub><span style="font-size: small;">2</span></sub><span style="font-size: small;">O(l)</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Penguapan Alkohol</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Berikut diagram reaksi endoterm:</span></span> <br />
</li>
</ul><ol start="2" style="text-align: left;"><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"></div>
</ol><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpogEzXF_AlmTRDmhXo9IMjxgN1_ra7bEoiCKWSxKccNHMi8ZA49bR6sl1kw8ioaqSE4rfdeJSslZuUlSAxLY4X3iC2OzuKM1Q0kB3JYjcp21S-He1TCf-CxuEy6plhBH-THX_C0Ll9r6e/s1600-h/Diagram+Endoterm+I.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="211" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpogEzXF_AlmTRDmhXo9IMjxgN1_ra7bEoiCKWSxKccNHMi8ZA49bR6sl1kw8ioaqSE4rfdeJSslZuUlSAxLY4X3iC2OzuKM1Q0kB3JYjcp21S-He1TCf-CxuEy6plhBH-THX_C0Ll9r6e/s320/Diagram+Endoterm+I.jpg" width="247" /></a><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2Jfg7CFSxMDZVd15C8iICSQ795I_FoYMnuEcePWrSudJOEdNGSNfsTa__AJHmdy29FA4G4gPjuSVmJZchevmqZW-eZPIEtIcQhqYocSVHKcrlz4wh3nJRXI_QWmlgk5rQqd9KYl1QaYXv/s1600-h/Diagram+Endoterm+II.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="239" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2Jfg7CFSxMDZVd15C8iICSQ795I_FoYMnuEcePWrSudJOEdNGSNfsTa__AJHmdy29FA4G4gPjuSVmJZchevmqZW-eZPIEtIcQhqYocSVHKcrlz4wh3nJRXI_QWmlgk5rQqd9KYl1QaYXv/s320/Diagram+Endoterm+II.jpg" style="cursor: move;" width="272" /></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i><b> </b></i></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i><b><span id="goog_1256048102111"></span><span id="goog_1256048102112"></span>Kondisi Standar & Persamaan Termokimia</b></i></span></span><br />
</div><div style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #ff3333;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Semua persamaan</b></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"> termokimia akan dituliskan dengan </span><span style="color: #ff3333;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>kondisi standar (STP)</b></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"> sebagai acuannya, yaitu 1 atm (101.3 kPa) dan 25</span><sup><span style="font-size: small;">o</span></sup><span style="font-size: small;">C (298 K). Ini digunakan karena unsur pada kondisi ini berada dalam tingkat paling stabil.</span></span><br />
</div><div style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><br />
</div><div style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.do" name="DDE_LINK5"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.do" name="DDE_LINK3"></a> <span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Persamaan termokimia akan menyatakan jumlah mol reaktan dan produk, serta menyatakan jumlah energi yang terlibat. SI untuk </span><span style="color: #ff3333;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>ΔH adalah kJ mol</b></span></span><span style="color: #ff3333;"><sup><span style="font-size: small;"><b>-1</b></span></sup></span><span style="font-size: small;">. 'mol</span><sup><span style="font-size: small;">-1</span></sup><span style="font-size: small;">' tidak menyatakan jumlah penyusun senyawa, namun </span><span style="color: #ff3333;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>jumlah per mol dalam persamaan</b></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"> tersebut, biasanya dengan acuan mol produk adalah 1. Contoh</span></span><br />
</div><div style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">CO(g) + 1/2 O</span><sub><span style="font-size: small;">2</span></sub><span style="font-size: small;">(g)</span><sub><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></sub><span style="font-size: small;">-> CO</span><sub><span style="font-size: small;">2</span></sub><span style="font-size: small;">(g) ΔH= -283 kJ mol</span><sup><span style="font-size: small;">-1</span></sup></span><br />
</div><div style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.do" name="DDE_LINK6"></a> <span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">2CO(g) + O<sub>2</sub>(g) -> 2CO<sub>2</sub>(g) ΔH= -566 kJ mol<sup>-1</sup></span></span><br />
</div><div style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Catatan:</span></span><br />
</div><ol style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Terkadang mol<sup>-1</sup> hanya dituliskan jika mol reaktan adalah 1, atau tidak dituliskan sama sekali</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Persamaan termokimia juga harus memasukkan kondisi fisis senyawanya</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i><b> Jenis-Jenis Perubahan Entalpi</b></i></span></span></li>
</ol><div style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Ada beberapa jenis entalpi, namun kurikulum Indonesia hanya mensyaratkan 4 diantaranya (anda boleh lega, karena siswa Singapura belajar 7 jenis), yaitu:</span></span><br />
</div><ol style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Entalpi Pembentukan Standar (</span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">ΔH</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">f</span></span></span></sub><sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">0</span></span></span></sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">= Standard Enthalpy of Formation)</span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Entalpi pembentukan standar adalah perubahan entalpi <span style="color: #ff3333;"><b>untuk membentuk senyawa</b></span> satu mol <span style="color: #ff3333;"><b>dari unsur-unsurnya</b></span> pada kondisi standar.</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Contoh:</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">H</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">2</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">(g) + 1/2 O</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">2</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">-> H</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">2</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">O(l) ΔH=-286 kJ mol</span></span></span><sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">-1</span></span></span></sup></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.do" name="DDE_LINK7"></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">C (grafit) + O</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">2</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">(g) -> CO</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">2</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">(g) ΔH=-393 kJ mol</span></span></span><sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">-1</span></span></span></sup></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">K(s) + Mn(s) + 2O</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">2</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> -> KMnO</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">4</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">(s) ΔH=-813 kJ mol</span></span></span><sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">-1</span></span></span></sup></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Catatan:</span></span><br />
</div></li>
</ol><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">ΔH<sub><span style="font-size: medium;">f </span></sub>elemen stabil adalah 0</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">ΔH<sub><span style="font-size: medium;">f</span></sub><sub> </sub>digunakan untuk memperkirakan stabilitas senyawa dibanding penyusunnya</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Semakin kecil ΔH<sub><span style="font-size: medium;">f</span></sub><sub>, </sub>semakin stabil energi senyawa itu</span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">ΔH<sub><span style="font-size: medium;">f </span></sub>tidak mencerminkan laju reaksi (akan dibahas pada bab selanjutnya)</span></span></li>
</ul><ol start="2" style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Entalpi Penguraian Standar (ΔH</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">d</span></span></span></sub><sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">0</span></span></span></sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">= Standard Enthalpy of Decomposition)</span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Entalpi penguraian standar adalah kebalikan pembentukan, yaitu <span style="color: #ff3333;"><b>kembalinya senyawa ke unsur dasarnya</b></span>. Maka, entalpinya pun akan berbalik.</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Contoh:</span></span><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">H</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">2</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">O(l) -> H</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">2</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">(g) + 1/2 O2(g) ΔH=+286 kJ mol</span></span></span><sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">-1 </span></span></span></sup><span style="font-size: small;"><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">(bnd. contoh H</span></i></span><sub><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">f</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">no. 1)</span></i></span></span><br />
</div><br />
<br />
</li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Entalpi Pembakaran Standar (ΔH</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">c</span></span></span></sub><sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">0</span></span></span></sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">= Standard Enthalpy of Combustion)</span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Entalpi pembakaran standar adalah perubahan entalpi ketika <span style="color: #ff3333;"><b>1 mol materi dibakar habis menggunakan oksigen</b></span> pada kondisi standar.</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Contoh :</span></span><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">1/2 C</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">2</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">H</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">4</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">(g) + 3/2 O</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">2</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> -> CO</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">2</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">(g) + H</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">2</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">O(l) ΔH=-705.5 kJ mol</span></span></span><sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">-1</span></span></span></sup></span><br />
</div><div style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Catatan:</span></span><br />
</div></li>
</ol><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #ff3333;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><b>ΔHc selalu negatif</b></span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">, karena panas pasti dilibatkan</span></span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">ΔHc bisa digunakan untuk menilai kandungan energi bahan bakar atau makanan</span></span></span></span></li>
</ul><ol start="4" style="text-align: left;"><li> <br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" style="margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Entalpi Pelarutan Standar (ΔHs</span></span></span><sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">0</span></span></span></sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">= Standard Enthalpy of Solution)</span></span></span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Entalpi pelarutan standar adalah perubahan entalpi ketika <span style="color: #ff3333;"><b>1 mol materi terlarut</b></span> pada sebuah larutan <span style="color: #ff3333;"><b>menghasilkan larutan encer</b></span>. Setelah itu, tidak akan terjadi perubahan suhu bila larutan awal ditambahkan.</span></span><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Contoh:</span></span><br />
</div></li>
</ol><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">NH</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">3</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">(g) + aq -> NH</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">3</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">(aq) ΔH</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">s</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">=-35.2 kJ mol</span></span></span><sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">-1</span></span></span></sup></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">HCl(g) + aq -> H</span></span></span><sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">+</span></span></span></sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">(aq) + Cl</span></span></span><sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">-</span></span></span></sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">(aq) </span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">ΔH</span></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">s</span></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">=-72.4 kJ mol</span></span></span><sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">-1</span></span></span></sup></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">NaCl(s) + aq -> Na</span></span></span><sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">+</span></span></span></sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">(aq) + Cl</span></span></span><sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">-</span></span></span></sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">(aq) </span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">ΔH</span></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">=+4.0 kJ mol</span></span></span><sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">-1</span></span></span></sup></span></li>
</ul><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><i>Catatan:</i></span><i><br />
</i><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><i>Jika ΔH</i></span></span><sub><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><i>s</i></span></span></sub><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><i> sangat positif, zat itu tidak larut dalam air</i></span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><i>Jika ΔH negatif, zat itu larut dalam air</i></span></span></span></li>
</ul><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Catatan: Pengukuran entalpi akan dibahas dalam tulisan tersendiri</span><br />
<ul style="text-align: left;"></ul><div style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Sumber:</span></span><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Suyatno, dkk. <i>Kimia Untuk SMA/MA Kelas XI</i>. 2007. Jakarta: Grasindo</span></span><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Purba, Michael. <i>Kimia 2A Untuk SMA Kelas XI</i>. 2006. Jakarta: Erlangga</span></span><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Toh, CS. <i>A-Level Study Guide-Chemistry-Edition 3.0.3 for Higher 2</i>. 2009. Singapore: Step-by-Step</span></span><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Encyclopaedia Britannica 2007</span></span><br />
</div><div style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/intro3.htm</span></span><br />
</div><div style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Kirimkan semua pertanyaan pada: pauly.simanjuntak@gmail.com</span></span><br />
</div><qtlbar dir="ltr" id="qtlbar" style="-moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 3px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 3px; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 3px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 3px; background-color: #ececec; cursor: pointer; display: inline; left: 251px; line-height: 100%; opacity: 0.9; padding: 0pt; text-align: left; top: 49px; z-index: 999;"><img class="qtl" src="http://www.qtl.co.il/img/copy.png" title="Copy selction" /><iframe id="qtlframe" src="" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(236, 236, 236); display: none;"></iframe></qtlbar>adminbelajarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05777739124848995835noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-173521480956809529.post-38280683599811849942009-10-07T21:24:00.003+07:002009-10-07T21:42:22.260+07:00BANGUN & BENTUK MOLEKUL
<br /><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5Cuser%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if !mso]> <style> v\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} o\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} w\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} .shape {behavior:url(#default#VML);} </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if !mso]><object classid="clsid:38481807-CA0E-42D2-BF39-B33AF135CC4D" id="ieooui"></object> <style> st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } </style> <![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:Tahoma; panose-1:2 11 6 4 3 5 4 4 2 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:swiss; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:1627421319 -2147483648 8 0 66047 0;} @font-face {font-family:Algerian; panose-1:4 2 7 5 4 10 2 6 7 2; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:decorative; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:3 0 0 0 1 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0in; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:8.5in 11.0in; margin:1.0in 1.25in 1.0in 1.25in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} /* List Definitions */ @list l0 {mso-list-id:136608319; mso-list-type:hybrid; mso-list-template-ids:923305138 67698703 67698713 67698715 67698703 67698713 67698715 67698703 67698713 67698715;} @list l0:level1 {mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in;} @list l1 {mso-list-id:469058471; mso-list-type:hybrid; mso-list-template-ids:1605694716 67698703 67698713 67698715 67698703 67698713 67698715 67698703 67698713 67698715;} @list l1:level1 {mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in;} @list l2 {mso-list-id:814685912; mso-list-type:hybrid; mso-list-template-ids:48124672 67698703 67698713 67698715 67698703 67698713 67698715 67698703 67698713 67698715;} @list l2:level1 {mso-level-tab-stop:.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in;} ol {margin-bottom:0in;} ul {margin-bottom:0in;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} table.MsoTableGrid {mso-style-name:"Table Grid"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-border-insideh:.5pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev:.5pt solid windowtext; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:shapedefaults ext="edit" spidmax="1028"> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:shapelayout ext="edit"> <o:idmap ext="edit" data="1"> </o:shapelayout></xml><![endif]--><b style=""><span style=";font-family:Algerian;font-size:20pt;" >BANGUN & BEN</span></b><b style=""><span style=";font-family:Algerian;font-size:20pt;" >T</span></b><b style=""><span style=";font-family:Algerian;font-size:20pt;" >U</span></b><b style=""><span style=";font-family:Algerian;font-size:20pt;" >K MOLEKUL</span></b><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">
<br /><b style=""><span style=";font-family:Algerian;font-size:20pt;" ><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><o:p> Download link: <a href="http://docs.google.com/fileview?id=0B9Qz6olMyMMeYjNkOTRhZTMtZDAyYi00MjcwLWFhMDEtOTM1NzBhZmJmZjRk&hl=en">Bangun & Bentuk Molekul.pdf</a> (lebih lengkap)
<br /></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><i style=""><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Pendahuluan</span></i></b><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Tulisan berikut akan membahas mengenai susunan elektron dan ikatan pada molekul mempengaruhi bentuk ikatannya.
<br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><i style=""><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion</span></i></b><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">VSEPR adalah salah satu metode untuk menentukan bentuk molekul, dan paling sering digunakan karena cukup sederhana. Teori ini menyatakan bahwa:</span></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><span style=";font-family:Tahoma;color:red;" >Pasangan elektron</span></b><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"> pada molekul (terikat atau bebas) <b style=""><span style="color:red;">saling bertolak</span></b> dan bergerak <b style=""><span style="color:red;">sejauh mungkin</span></b> satu sama lain<o:p></o:p></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Pasangan elektron bebas <b style=""><span style="color:red;">(PEB) bertolak lebih besar </span></b>dari pasangan elektron terikat (<st1:place st="on"><st1:state st="on">PEI</st1:state></st1:place>)<o:p></o:p></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Besar tolakan berjalan sebanding dengan perubahan keelektronegatifan pada atom pusat</span></li></ol>
<br /> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Pertama-tama, sebelum mulai, harus diketahui bahwa <b style=""><span style="color:red;">domain elektron</span></b> adalah <b style=""><span style="color:red;">ikatan elektron</span></b>, baik <b style=""><span style="color:red;">tunggal atau rangkap</span></b>. Satu domain juga termasuk <b style=""><span style="color:red;">pasangan elektron bebas</span></b> tak berikatan. Mudahnya, bayangkan domain adalah kelompok elektron pada satu sisi atom, seperti yang terlihat di diagram Lewis.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Setelah itu, dengan rumus:</span><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5Cuser%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><link rel="Edit-Time-Data" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5Cuser%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso"><link rel="OLE-Object-Data" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5Cuser%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_oledata.mso"><!--[if !mso]> <style> v\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} o\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} w\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} .shape {behavior:url(#default#VML);} </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:Tahoma; panose-1:2 11 6 4 3 5 4 4 2 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:swiss; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:1627421319 -2147483648 8 0 66047 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0in; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:8.5in 11.0in; margin:1.0in 1.25in 1.0in 1.25in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:shapedefaults ext="edit" spidmax="1026"> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:shapelayout ext="edit"> <o:idmap ext="edit" data="1"> </o:shapelayout></xml><![endif]--><span style=";font-family:Tahoma;font-size:12pt;" ><span style="position: relative; top: 12pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600" spt="75" preferrelative="t" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" filled="f" stroked="f"> <v:stroke joinstyle="miter"> <v:formulas> <v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"> <v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"> <v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"> <v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"> <v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"> <v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"> <v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"> <v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"> </v:formulas> <v:path extrusionok="f" gradientshapeok="t" connecttype="rect"> <o:lock ext="edit" aspectratio="t"> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:1in;" ole=""> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\user\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtml1\01\clip_image001.wmz" title=""> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:oleobject type="Embed" progid="Equation.3" shapeid="_x0000_i1025" drawaspect="Content" objectid="_1316455877"> </o:OLEObject> </xml><![endif]--></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><span style="position: relative; top: 12pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600" spt="75" preferrelative="t" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" filled="f" stroked="f"> <v:stroke joinstyle="miter"> <v:formulas> <v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"> <v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"> <v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"> <v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"> <v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"> <v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"> <v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"> <v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"> </v:formulas> <v:path extrusionok="f" gradientshapeok="t" connecttype="rect"> <o:lock ext="edit" aspectratio="t"> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:1in;" ole=""> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\user\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtml1\01\clip_image001.wmz" title=""> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/user/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image002.gif" shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="96" height="41" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:oleobject type="Embed" progid="Equation.3" shapeid="_x0000_i1025" drawaspect="Content" objectid="_1316455851"> </o:OLEObject> </xml><![endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Dimana:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">E adalah domain elektron bebas<o:p></o:p></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">EV adalah elektron valensi atom pusat<o:p></o:p></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">X adalah domain elektron bebas (jumlah atom yang terikat pada atom pusat) <o:p></o:p></span></li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Namun, rumus tersebut hanya berlaku pada ikatan molekul yang berikatan tunggal. Maka, jika ditemukan <b style=""><span style="color:red;">ikatan rangkap atau datif</span></b>, memakai rumus:</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><span style="position: relative; top: 12pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1026" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:75pt;height:30.75pt'" ole=""> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\user\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtml1\01\clip_image003.wmz" title=""> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/user/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image004.gif" shapes="_x0000_i1026" width="100" height="41" /></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">
<br /><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><span style="position: relative; top: 12pt;"><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:oleobject type="Embed" progid="Equation.3" shapeid="_x0000_i1026" drawaspect="Content" objectid="_1316455852"> </o:OLEObject> </xml><![endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Dimana X’ adalah jumlah elektron yang digunakan untuk berikatan oleh atom pusat (jika ada ikatan datif, maka elektron milik atom lain itu tidak dihitung).</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">
<br /></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Bagaimana menentukan atom pusat? Pertama, perhatikan <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on"><b style=""><span style="color:red;">massa</span></b></st1:place></st1:city><b style=""><span style="color:red;"> atom</span></b> tersebut. Jika atom tersebut massanya lebih besar, ia cenderung menjadi atom pusat (ingat hukum <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Newton</st1:place></st1:city> tentang gravitasi). Kedua, lihat <b style=""><span style="color:red;">banyak valensi</span></b>nya. Elektron bervalensi lebih banyak cenderung menjadi atom pusat (karena memiliki lebih b</span><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">anyak ‘tangan’). Ketiga (lebih sulit), lihat <b style=""><span style="color:red;">keelektronegatifan</span></b>nya. Atom yang elektronegatif akan cenderung menarik atom lain. </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Setelah mengetahui detil domain-domain pada sebuah molekul, maka dapat hasilnya dapat dinyatakan dengan:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><span style="position: relative; top: 6pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1027" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:39pt;height:18pt'" ole=""> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\user\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtml1\01\clip_image005.wmz" title=""> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/user/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image006.gif" shapes="_x0000_i1027" width="52" height="24" /><!--[endif]--></span><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:oleobject type="Embed" progid="Equation.3" shapeid="_x0000_i1027" drawaspect="Content" objectid="_1316455853"> </o:OLEObject> </xml><![endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Dimana m dan n adalah jumlah domain yang terpakai.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Maka, anda akan melihat bahwa:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1026" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\user\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtml1\01\clip_image007.jpg" title="Tabel Bentuk Molekul"> <w:wrap type="square"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvLwxr2DfxUs704AUudN25DIrv5ksVBxHDmN2CEYhd2y07xdTy-9VDqNu-USCJVpfo9Ixv-sPDb9jI60J36hjfzQ6fNGwm0TpI4dldhyrYI6xZoV92iwzi89GhjT4lj-jfsF4vnHRdY0V-/s1600-h/Tabel+Bentuk+Molekul.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 172px; height: 235px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvLwxr2DfxUs704AUudN25DIrv5ksVBxHDmN2CEYhd2y07xdTy-9VDqNu-USCJVpfo9Ixv-sPDb9jI60J36hjfzQ6fNGwm0TpI4dldhyrYI6xZoV92iwzi89GhjT4lj-jfsF4vnHRdY0V-/s200/Tabel+Bentuk+Molekul.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5389865853350808322" border="0" /></a>
<br /><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><span style=""> </span> Catatan untuk senyawa tidak netral:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0in;" start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Untuk setiap ion negatif, ada satu ikatan tunggal dengan atom O (- O<sup>-</sup>)<o:p></o:p></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Setiap atom O lainnya membentuk ikatan rangkap (= O)</span><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvtHUmi0s3NL8co5lhQcuQEvg2gQJgU2yPoZSec6IDYkQCaE9EVH8wKS9NQS-ZoowF00e1iscoeAnJ1n9FIOOkWII_3b4xIkxFRHWNSSc-7NnRDg4VLH9lBP-W1kflw-r4_zlIyCqmKzko/s1600-h/VSEPR.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 223px; height: 112px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvtHUmi0s3NL8co5lhQcuQEvg2gQJgU2yPoZSec6IDYkQCaE9EVH8wKS9NQS-ZoowF00e1iscoeAnJ1n9FIOOkWII_3b4xIkxFRHWNSSc-7NnRDg4VLH9lBP-W1kflw-r4_zlIyCqmKzko/s200/VSEPR.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5389865837221515650" border="0" /></a></li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1028" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:6in;height:3in'"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\user\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtml1\01\clip_image009.gif" title="VSEPR"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]-->
<br /><!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1027" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;" wrapcoords="-48 0 -48 21554 21600 21554 21600 0 -48 0"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\user\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtml1\01\clip_image011.jpg" title="Model Hibridisasi"> <w:wrap type="tight"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--><b style=""><i style=""><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Hibridisasi<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Hibridisasi adalah cara lain menentukan bentuk molekul. Ini melihat dari sudut pandang atom tersebut.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Pertama, <b style=""><span style="color:red;">buat konfigurasi s, p, d, f</span></b> dari atom pusat <b style=""><span style="color:red;">tanpa meng-gunakan aturan rintik hujan</span></b>. Kea-daan ini ada-lah <b style=""><span style="color:red;">keadaan dasar </span></b><span style="color:red;">(<i style="">ground state</i>)</span>. Lihat berapa atom yang masih tidak berpasangan. Bandingkan dengan pasangan yang ada. Jika belum cukup, maka <b style=""><span style="color:red;">pecah salah satu orbital</span></b> penuh menjadi dua. Lalukan sebanyak kebutuhan. Ini disebut <b style=""><span style="color:red;">keadaan tereksitasi</span></b> <i style=""><span style="color:red;">(excited state)</span></i>. Sisa elektron yang tidak terpakai adalah PEB. Orbital hibrida adalah gabungan orbital-orbital separuh tersebut. </span><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjeQvQFv157yLsnUt635cMoEvh6wusY7UmHXD8fjaPrcJW2Kxzmikp8YzpL2r-90NzfOP-hr5Y8FvwkuHbMjKdIumHi_pHr16UxA0gvknxriJp54NY0g1NHtXHdH1nz42rNT_6qedpMkV1Z/s1600-h/Model+Hibridisasi.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 194px; height: 200px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjeQvQFv157yLsnUt635cMoEvh6wusY7UmHXD8fjaPrcJW2Kxzmikp8YzpL2r-90NzfOP-hr5Y8FvwkuHbMjKdIumHi_pHr16UxA0gvknxriJp54NY0g1NHtXHdH1nz42rNT_6qedpMkV1Z/s200/Model+Hibridisasi.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5389867970689564050" border="0" /></a></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Berikut ringkasan hasil hibridisasi:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <table class="MsoTableGrid" style="border: medium none ; width: 479.7pt; border-collapse: collapse;" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="640"> <tbody><tr style=""> <td style="border: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 65.7pt;" valign="top" width="88"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Hibridisasi<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;color:windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="108"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Total Ikatan<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;color:windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="84"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Total <st1:state st="on"><st1:place st="on">PEI</st1:place></st1:state><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;color:windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="84"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Total PEB<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;color:windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="108"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Bentuk<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.75in;color:windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="168"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Contoh<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 65.7pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext;" valign="top" width="88"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Sp<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="108"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">2<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="84"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">2<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="84"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">0<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="108"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Linier<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.75in;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="168"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">BeCl<sub>2</sub>, C2H<sub>2</sub><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 65.7pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext;" valign="top" width="88"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Sp<sup>2<o:p></o:p></sup></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="108"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">3<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="84"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">3<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="84"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">0<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="108"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Segitiga<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.75in;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="168"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">BCl<sub>3</sub>, C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>, BO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td rowspan="3" style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 65.7pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext;" valign="top" width="88"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Sp<sup>3<o:p></o:p></sup></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="108"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">4<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="84"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">4<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="84"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">0<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="108"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Tetrahedral<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.75in;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="168"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">CH<sub>4</sub>, CCl<sub>4</sub>, SnCl<sub>4</sub><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="108"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">4<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="84"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">3<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="84"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">1<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="108"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Piramida Trigonal<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.75in;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="168"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">NH<sub>3</sub>, PH<sub>3</sub>, PCl<sub>3</sub>, AgH<sub>3</sub>, SbH<sub>3</sub><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="108"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">4<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="84"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">2<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="84"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">2<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="108"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Huruf V<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.75in;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="168"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">H<sub>2</sub>O, H<sub>2</sub>S, H<sub>2</sub>Se, H<sub>2</sub>Te<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 65.7pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext;" valign="top" width="88"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Sp<sup>3</sup>d<sup><o:p></o:p></sup></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="108"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">5<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="84"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">5<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="84"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">0<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="108"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Bipiramida Trigonal<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.75in;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="168"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">PCl<sub>5</sub>, SbCl<sub>5</sub>, VF<sub>5</sub><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 65.7pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext;" valign="top" width="88"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Sp<sup>3</sup>d<sup>2<o:p></o:p></sup></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="108"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">6<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="84"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">6<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 63pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="84"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">0<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 81pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="108"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Oktahedral<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 1.75in;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="168"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">SF<sub>6</sub>, SeF<sub>6</sub>, FeF<sub>6</sub></span></p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">
<br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Sumber:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Suyatno, dkk. <i style="">Kimia Untuk SMA/MA Kelas XI</i>. 2007. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Jakarta</st1:place></st1:city>: Grasindo<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Purba, Michael. <i style="">Kimia 2A Untuk SMA Kelas XI</i>. 2006. <st1:city st="on"><st1:place st="on">Jakarta</st1:place></st1:city>: Erlangga<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Toh, CS. <i style="">A-Level Study Guide-Chemistry-Edition 3.0.3 for Higher 2</i>. 2009. <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">Singapore</st1:place></st1:country-region>: Step-by-Step<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Encyclopaedia Britannica 2007<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/intro3.htm<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-family:Tahoma;">Kirimkan semua pertanyaan pada: pauly.simanjuntak@gmail.com<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> adminbelajarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05777739124848995835noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-173521480956809529.post-52552952801193829662009-10-06T19:04:00.003+07:002009-10-11T17:14:33.440+07:00Elastisitas & Gerak Harmonik SederhanaBerikut download link untuk bab Elastisitas & Gerak Harmonik Sederhana:<br />
<a href="http://docs.google.com/fileview?id=0B9Qz6olMyMMeMDM0NjI2NzMtNDc3NC00ZWM0LWI3ZTEtODU5ZjJjN2Y0YTQ1&hl=en">Elastisitas & Gerak Harmonik Sederhana</a><br />
<br />
<p>Maaf karena tidak diposting langsung, karena keterbatasan kemampuan blog.</p><br />
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<p>Terima Kasih</p><br />
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<p>Adminbelajar</p><hr />adminbelajarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05777739124848995835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-173521480956809529.post-70783045503225145982009-10-05T16:54:00.004+07:002009-10-05T17:22:52.594+07:00Gaya Antar Molekul<div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:130%;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Gaya Antar Molekul</span></span>
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<br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Untuk <span style="font-weight: bold;">Download</span> Versi PDF:<a href="http://docs.google.com/fileview?id=0B9Qz6olMyMMeMjg3MmQyODAtNjAzMi00NmM5LWJlM2EtNDQ4NmZiNTY0MTk1&hl=en">Gaya Antar Molekul</a>(ada tambahannya)
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<br /></div><span style="font-weight: bold;">Pendahuluan</span>
<br /><div style="text-align: justify;">Tulisan berikut akan menjelaskan berbagai macam ikatan pada atom dan mengapa ikatan tersebut dapat terjadi. Selain itu, dijelaskan pula akibatnya pada sifat fisis ikatan tersebut.
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<br /><b><i>Gaya Van der Waals</i></b>
<br /><div style="text-align: justify;">Gaya Van der Waals adalah istilah untuk menyatakan keseluruhan gaya-gaya antar molekul pada atom-atom nonlogam. Gaya ini adalah jumlah dari : (a) gaya London/dispersi; (b) gaya dipol. Keduanya akan dibahas lebih lanjut.
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<br />(a) <i>Gaya London/dispersi</i>
<br /><div style="text-align: justify;">Gaya ini digagas oleh ilmuwan Jerman, Fritz London. Ini adalah gaya untuk menjelaskan kekuatan tarik-menarik antara zat NONPOLAR. Gaya ini bersifat sementara, namun berlangsung terus-menerus sehingga terlihat tetap.
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<br />Gaya ini terbentuk ketika elektron pada sebuah atom tidak tersebar secara merata, namun bergerak condong pada satu sisi secara terus menerus (istilah: berosilasi), membentuk dipol (kutub) sementara. Dipol ini akan menginduksi atom lainnya, sehingga tercipta IKATAN LEMAH diantaranya, dan disebut sebagai gaya dispersi.
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<br />(b) <span style="font-style: italic;">Gaya Dipol</span>
<br /><div style="text-align: justify;">Gaya dipol terjadi HANYA pada IKATAN POLAR. Gaya ini memiliki dua jenis, yaitu antara (1) dipol-dipol dan (2) dipol terinduksi (kadang disebut terimbas).
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<br />(1) Gaya Tarik Dipol-dipol
<br /><div style="text-align: justify;">Gaya dipol-dipol adalah gaya yang PERMANEN yang terjadi di antara dua molekul POLAR. Gaya ini lebih kuat dari gaya London, walau lebih lemah dari ikatan kovalen. Ikatan ini terbentuk ketika molekul yang memiliki pol (kutub) tetap bertemu dengan molekul polar lainnya.
<br /></div>Sebagai catatan, gaya ini dapat terjadi pada molekul tanpa momen dipol.
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<br />(2) Gaya Tarik Dipol - Dipol Terinduksi (Terimbas)
<br /><div style="text-align: justify;">Gaya ini terbentuk antara molekul polar dengan molekul non polar. Secara prinsip, kejadiannya sama dengan pembentukan gaya London. Ketika molekul polar bertemu molekul nonpolar, pol pada molekul polar menginduksi molekul nonpolar.
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<br /><div style="text-align: justify;">Dari kedua jenis gaya ini, dianalisis hal-hal yang mempengaruhi besar gaya Van der Waals. Keduanya adalah:
<br /></div>1.<span style="font-weight: bold;">Banyak elektron</span>
<br /><div style="text-align: justify;">Banyak elektron atau besar massa atom menentukan kekuatan gaya Van der Waals. Semakin besar Ar, semakin kuat ikatannya. Perhatikan tabel berikut!<meta equiv="CONTENT-TYPE" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><title></title><meta name="GENERATOR" content="OpenOffice.org 3.1 (Win32)"><meta name="CREATED" content="0;0"><meta name="CHANGED" content="0;0"></div><style type="text/css"> <!-- @page { margin: 0.79in } TD P { margin-bottom: 0in } P { margin-bottom: 0.08in } A:link { so-language: zxx } --> </style> <center> <table style="page-break-after: auto; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: left; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px;" border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width="289"> <col width="47"> <col width="91"> <col width="125"> <tbody><tr valign="TOP"> <td width="47"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">Unsur</span></p> </td> <td width="91"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">A<sub><span style="font-size:130%;">r</span></sub></span></p> </td> <td width="125"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">Titik didih (<sup>o</sup>C)</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr valign="TOP"> <td width="47"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">He</span></p> </td> <td sdval="2" sdnum="2057;" width="91"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">2</span></p> </td> <td sdval="-269" sdnum="2057;" width="125"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">-269</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr valign="TOP"> <td width="47"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">Ne</span></p> </td> <td sdval="10" sdnum="2057;" width="91"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">10</span></p> </td> <td sdval="-246" sdnum="2057;" width="125"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">-246</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr valign="TOP"> <td width="47"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">Ar</span></p> </td> <td sdval="18" sdnum="2057;" width="91"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">18</span></p> </td> <td sdval="-186" sdnum="2057;" width="125"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">-186</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr valign="TOP"> <td width="47"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">Kr</span></p> </td> <td sdval="36" sdnum="2057;" width="91"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">36</span></p> </td> <td sdval="-152" sdnum="2057;" width="125"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">-152</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr valign="TOP"> <td width="47"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">Xe</span></p> </td> <td sdval="54" sdnum="2057;" width="91"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">54</span></p> </td> <td sdval="-108" sdnum="2057;" width="125"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">-108</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr valign="TOP"> <td width="47"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">Rn</span></p> </td> <td sdval="86" sdnum="2057;" width="91"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">86</span></p> </td> <td sdval="-61.8" sdnum="2057;" width="125"> <p align="CENTER"><span style="font-size:100%;">-61.8</span></p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </center>
<br /><div style="text-align: justify;">Catatan: Pada dasarnya memanaskan memecah ikatan molekul. Semakin tinggi titik didih menandakan lebih banyak energi diperlukan untuk memecah, karena ikatan makin kuat.
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<br />2.<span style="font-weight: bold;">Bentuk molekul</span>
<br /><div style="text-align: justify;">Bentuk molekul ikut memengaruhi kekuatan ikatan. Jika molekul makin panjang atau memiliki daerah sentuh yang luas, maka ikatannya makin kuat. Perhatikan gambar berikut!
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<br /><span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;">Ikatan Hidrogen</span>
<br /><div style="text-align: justify;">Ada satu jenis ikatan yang jauh lebih kuat dari gaya Van der Waals. Ia adalah ikatan hidrogen. Untuk membentuknya, diperlukan dua hal, yaitu:
<br />1.Sebuah atom hidrogen yang sepi elektron karena elektronnya diambil karena berpasangan dengan atom yang sangat elektronegatif (N, O, dan F)
<br />2.Sebuah pasangan elektron bebas (PEB) pada atom yang sangat elektronegatif (N, O, dan F)
<br /></div><div style="text-align: center;"></div><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgOH7WtrgMYEko_NldDQuVLJXCx5OW1YV_tf7JCl7NQTf-WlIVAdYDd7yDKev2Aa1iuCFfvU3dBuUlBs9rYLFKGeGc3dw-DeuxOYme9CAcQynlpJyX1rvVvsgQ5K5j4Aoy6kF1zWFlGkCzl/s1600-h/Ikatan+Hidrogen.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 302px; height: 106px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgOH7WtrgMYEko_NldDQuVLJXCx5OW1YV_tf7JCl7NQTf-WlIVAdYDd7yDKev2Aa1iuCFfvU3dBuUlBs9rYLFKGeGc3dw-DeuxOYme9CAcQynlpJyX1rvVvsgQ5K5j4Aoy6kF1zWFlGkCzl/s200/Ikatan+Hidrogen.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5389054590589061506" border="0" /></a><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-style: italic;">Contoh Ikatan Hidrogen</span></span>
<br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><div style="text-align: justify;">Perhatikan grafik berikut! Lihat bahwa ikatan hidrogen dengan N, O, dan F memiliki titik didih lebih tinggi.<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAs1j9Op0COQoEg5appHZsYKTnajXrgj6CcJoRv7qrhaVMbDTEsz5n2kfa1J5OSsS6Zops3ygilz_dajyoO4llmtJ8Qdch94Hh4s1WOZh3D_RQ21TRmtuse5y_zMazgrnw8vE4fjpfMcIQ/s1600-h/Grafik+Titik+Didih+Hidrida.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 268px; height: 183px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAs1j9Op0COQoEg5appHZsYKTnajXrgj6CcJoRv7qrhaVMbDTEsz5n2kfa1J5OSsS6Zops3ygilz_dajyoO4llmtJ8Qdch94Hh4s1WOZh3D_RQ21TRmtuse5y_zMazgrnw8vE4fjpfMcIQ/s200/Grafik+Titik+Didih+Hidrida.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5389054582197301666" border="0" /></a>Catatan: Ikatan hidrogen sering ditemukan pada hidrida, alkohol, dan asam karbosilik.
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<br />Sumber:
<br />Purba, Michael. 2006. Kimia Untuk SMA Kelas XI Semester I. Jakarta: Erlangga
<br />Suyatno, dkk. 2007. Kimia Untuk SMA/MA Kelas XI. Jakarta: Grasindo
<br />Toh, CS. 2009. A-Level Study Guide- Chemistry- Edition 3.0.3. Singapore: Step-by-Step
<br />http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/liquids/faq/h-bonding-vs-london-forces.shtml
<br />Encyclopaedia Britannica 7.0</div>adminbelajarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05777739124848995835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-173521480956809529.post-80923989145030565002009-08-18T21:33:00.011+07:002009-08-19T22:25:37.575+07:00Perkembangan Teori Atom<div style="text-align: center;">PERKEMBANGAN TEORI ATOM</div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Pendahuluan</span>
<br />Bagian ini membahas tentang perkembangan teori atom, dari dahulu hingga sekarang. Walaupun sudah pernah dibahas pada kelas 10, ada baiknya dibahas lagi, karena pembahasan selanjutnya akan berawal dari pembahasan ini.
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<br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Pembahasan</span></div><meta equiv="CONTENT-TYPE" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><title></title><meta name="GENERATOR" content="OpenOffice.org 3.1 (Win32)"><meta name="CREATED" content="0;0"><meta name="CHANGED" content="0;0"><style type="text/css"> <!-- @page { margin: 0.79in } TD P { margin-bottom: 0in } P { margin-bottom: 0.08in } --> </style> <table style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); width: 490px; height: 1834px;" border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"> <col width="205"> <col width="332"> <col width="79"> <tbody><tr valign="top"> <td width="205"> <p style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Penemu</span></p> </td> <td width="332"> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Teori</span></p> </td> <td width="79"> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Tahun</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td width="205"> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Democritus</span><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8e0dd32iRBFD6WF371ujWaMo5tCaRtGzsnpp2WW_un60KTtQvd9lXxRsjsTVgwJYLdWdls4dspwg6_KqUKYN2fHrUTh5ZK17BApgcOYSC_-5SITqpUMufCDEJDE2bFIQ2nfgdlKw56jiH/s1600-h/Democritus.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 128px; height: 157px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8e0dd32iRBFD6WF371ujWaMo5tCaRtGzsnpp2WW_un60KTtQvd9lXxRsjsTVgwJYLdWdls4dspwg6_KqUKYN2fHrUTh5ZK17BApgcOYSC_-5SITqpUMufCDEJDE2bFIQ2nfgdlKw56jiH/s320/Democritus.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5371312518374627938" border="0" /></a></p> </td> <td width="332"> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Semua materi terdiri dari unsur yang sudah tak terbagi (a=tidak ; tomos=ter</span><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">ba</span><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">gi)</span></p> </td> <td width="79"> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Abad ke-4 </span> </p> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Sebelum</span></p> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Masehi</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td width="205"> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">J.J. Thomson</span></p><p><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgACqmrgQ_dJYDqXaa_qycrXvJMJso1xKSL86XRHQlO8VJd3spMAxnBb1r0QfEzgeIM0jDALfzO_fN0QOA-YcJbTlB8XjlhswV079lC48LX22ZMYO9lwkzAlQR1mRG0xPf2JaiAivdxUrNP/s1600-h/JJ+Thompson.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 129px; height: 159px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgACqmrgQ_dJYDqXaa_qycrXvJMJso1xKSL86XRHQlO8VJd3spMAxnBb1r0QfEzgeIM0jDALfzO_fN0QOA-YcJbTlB8XjlhswV079lC48LX22ZMYO9lwkzAlQR1mRG0xPf2JaiAivdxUrNP/s320/JJ+Thompson.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5371312546365269714" border="0" /></a></p><p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">
<br /></span></p> </td> <td width="332"> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Terdapat muatan negatif (elektron) pada atom yang tersebar acak. Bentuknya seperti kue kismis (<i>apple pie).</i></span><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOYDWkpbm1cwYZ5-LokD2TakYLeIJpj0SGvx95rl6OGLywxdTKqU-Atb8ziKVT6h5WYYjDB34eAX6EnAP5m6e9K4bdhpionUSJF8Gkzk-tCDZUJE9tUy3sr1yk9PwwdWw1A3NS1bJFfdZ3/s1600-h/Thomson+Atom+Model.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 137px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiOYDWkpbm1cwYZ5-LokD2TakYLeIJpj0SGvx95rl6OGLywxdTKqU-Atb8ziKVT6h5WYYjDB34eAX6EnAP5m6e9K4bdhpionUSJF8Gkzk-tCDZUJE9tUy3sr1yk9PwwdWw1A3NS1bJFfdZ3/s200/Thomson+Atom+Model.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5371316783318124130" border="0" /></a></p> <p> </p> </td> <td width="79"> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">1897</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td width="205"> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Ernest Rutherford</span><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-0TOA5E0osYFaJzCFMLq0qkfY825xjlmhS24L8m68am8jrJNFbFDk2u1eCKBKukmvqE_YQt9ZwEUJnVn_7OpaeKINfTMk2uQmthcxaTBkUN7O0CogAdEQmSLWCmY4xb3nnqt_qZHOyReO/s1600-h/Lord+Rutherford.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 149px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-0TOA5E0osYFaJzCFMLq0qkfY825xjlmhS24L8m68am8jrJNFbFDk2u1eCKBKukmvqE_YQt9ZwEUJnVn_7OpaeKINfTMk2uQmthcxaTBkUN7O0CogAdEQmSLWCmY4xb3nnqt_qZHOyReO/s200/Lord+Rutherford.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5371315645207869730" border="0" /></a></p> </td> <td width="332"> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Sebagian besar atom adalah kosong. Ada muatan positif padat di pusatnya. Mengajukan bahwa elektron punya lintasan.</span><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnKyPoJqWZjV_XxgD7xbRyEjMHUi0CahPI-Jbg0ZKjUVVLxAUoyuEYz2jB4EgAtjiEtpfOmlUt4d5WS5v8G4lv4dalHYg7mbNyXW7GRiAorYX2rRzpgTOIGZqo4nfYsqB3BTFY7RlwRAs6/s1600-h/Rutherford+Atom+Model.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 200px; height: 123px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnKyPoJqWZjV_XxgD7xbRyEjMHUi0CahPI-Jbg0ZKjUVVLxAUoyuEYz2jB4EgAtjiEtpfOmlUt4d5WS5v8G4lv4dalHYg7mbNyXW7GRiAorYX2rRzpgTOIGZqo4nfYsqB3BTFY7RlwRAs6/s200/Rutherford+Atom+Model.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5371315667612622754" border="0" /></a></p> </td> <td width="79"> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">1909</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td width="205"> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Niels Bohr</span></p><p><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4I-_JxCIUK-cOunB4W0sdDb-DZjlH-SaOhUzoP8wqj3SY9QCUdpPbzTVwBxJPw4cSObqXyUNcKoatZFfdfmiIRG-h8qynA3KXQNqFaowQc_5afWX2qVGYKRPMcg_a_IxidwqPI1T9H6WL/s1600-h/Niels+Bohr.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 169px; height: 169px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4I-_JxCIUK-cOunB4W0sdDb-DZjlH-SaOhUzoP8wqj3SY9QCUdpPbzTVwBxJPw4cSObqXyUNcKoatZFfdfmiIRG-h8qynA3KXQNqFaowQc_5afWX2qVGYKRPMcg_a_IxidwqPI1T9H6WL/s200/Niels+Bohr.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5371315647402623106" border="0" /></a></p> </td> <td width="332"> <p> </p><p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Niels Bohr mengajukan prinsip bahwa </span><b>atom hanya ada pada tingkatan tertentu</b><span style="font-weight: normal;">, Perubahan lintasan berarti per</span></span><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">ubahan energi.</span></span><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVv6ZkJUgwDsOCuKW46GMbweokpGmHtZBYCpNO3-O5Cadd0SfETbksy5A56uBOqDEaBBGBYX1OM2GSy5A3nN8vv493QNYJMALUMeBQQAFZ1PuC4Y6GYtOO2o13uWtlm5rI3BEByD_slszJ/s1600-h/Bohr+Atom+Model.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 268px; height: 132px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVv6ZkJUgwDsOCuKW46GMbweokpGmHtZBYCpNO3-O5Cadd0SfETbksy5A56uBOqDEaBBGBYX1OM2GSy5A3nN8vv493QNYJMALUMeBQQAFZ1PuC4Y6GYtOO2o13uWtlm5rI3BEByD_slszJ/s200/Bohr+Atom+Model.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5371315660574583986" border="0" /></a></p><p><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/user/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/moz-screenshot.jpg" alt="" /><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/user/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/moz-screenshot-1.jpg" alt="" /></p> <p> </p> </td> <td width="79"> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">1913</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td width="205"> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Louis de Broglie</span><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhul2lhwgT1aY1Y_QqssGDZl0oUlwQVYstd_JB8MTBaXIkTsOiH6T9DPFYEd70vEuS32YO96kiD2SqyXEGReLeY2o-G3TmIOrwKDmx1VcQANYuSesBY5JFvgk9MqdGWs6i_yetWQeWoZpFT/s1600-h/Louis+Broglie.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 142px; height: 191px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhul2lhwgT1aY1Y_QqssGDZl0oUlwQVYstd_JB8MTBaXIkTsOiH6T9DPFYEd70vEuS32YO96kiD2SqyXEGReLeY2o-G3TmIOrwKDmx1VcQANYuSesBY5JFvgk9MqdGWs6i_yetWQeWoZpFT/s320/Louis+Broglie.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5371312531325438258" border="0" /></a></p> <p>
<br /> </p> </td> <td width="332"> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Louis de Broglie mengajukan teori bahwa materi dapat bersifat partikel dan gelobang pada saat yang sama (dualisme partikel). Dinyatakan dalam:</span></p> <p> </p><p> </p> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">dengan <span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">λ</span>= panjang gelombang, </span></p><p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">h= konstanta planck, m=massa partikel, v=kecepatan</span></p><p> </p> <p> </p><p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>
<br /> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> </td> <td width="79"> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">1924</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td width="205"> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Werner Heisenberg</span></p> <p><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWqx4KHc_U1Yl03OqNAxUJayIDh3ikrSwalcxD4RKOw1iCJe1C2otoWkoJksdn8xr-c9cBZ3w9_9x1eXkawv_uAC93CcY7D8jKJmiZo6aMHEeGLIfLSfVXp0LtgJNmz_ECF-xFB4fGalYT/s1600-h/W+Heisenberg.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 164px; height: 200px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWqx4KHc_U1Yl03OqNAxUJayIDh3ikrSwalcxD4RKOw1iCJe1C2otoWkoJksdn8xr-c9cBZ3w9_9x1eXkawv_uAC93CcY7D8jKJmiZo6aMHEeGLIfLSfVXp0LtgJNmz_ECF-xFB4fGalYT/s200/W+Heisenberg.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5371315656807615682" border="0" /></a> </p> <p> </p> </td> <td width="332"> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Heisenberg mengajukan bahwa metode eksperime apa saja yang digunakan untuk menentukan posisi dan momentum benda bergerak tidak dapat dipastikan secara bersamaan</span></p><p> </p> </td> <td width="79"> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">192</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr valign="top"> <td width="205"> <p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Erwin Schroedinger</span></p> <p><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhmt7PcQG2hYuizzhEBpMlZODKf4FQRiUbMzlXOryw0fBmkwnGJcgnMd3CPmBalRzDAcXQb7maKcKnT7s1LYlhJo_GOGXVjzQ6I8ze8gs0WAYkVCSAA-7EkpWZ8BaT2-BlJScrilGAfcS7o/s1600-h/Erwin_Schrodinger.JPG"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 139px; height: 160px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhmt7PcQG2hYuizzhEBpMlZODKf4FQRiUbMzlXOryw0fBmkwnGJcgnMd3CPmBalRzDAcXQb7maKcKnT7s1LYlhJo_GOGXVjzQ6I8ze8gs0WAYkVCSAA-7EkpWZ8BaT2-BlJScrilGAfcS7o/s320/Erwin_Schrodinger.JPG" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5371312527273295330" border="0" /></a> </p> <p> </p> </td> <td width="332"> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Schroedinger menyusun model atom mekanika kuantum, berdasarkan model dari Louis de Broglie. Daerah yang sering dilewati elektron (<i>orbital</i><span style="font-style: normal;">) adalah daerah dengan kemungkinan ditemukan elektron.</span></span></p><p> </p> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Bentuknya akan seperti awan gelap yang semakin tipis pada sisinya</span></span></p><p><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGBzysMjicQOBfPlxoNNf1UogeAAy7guTl62BXAOaSh0apX80IM_GNClodoRMG1mmr0TCYVpAyQLU70of8ZGqvH1o2bZZLYLCeN9glRlfd-UkiI768NCLtuGnq_8RhopcZnlBhT_wVmXp9/s1600-h/Awan+orbital.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 125px; height: 125px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGBzysMjicQOBfPlxoNNf1UogeAAy7guTl62BXAOaSh0apX80IM_GNClodoRMG1mmr0TCYVpAyQLU70of8ZGqvH1o2bZZLYLCeN9glRlfd-UkiI768NCLtuGnq_8RhopcZnlBhT_wVmXp9/s320/Awan+orbital.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5371312543797937858" border="0" /></a> </p> <p> </p> <p>
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<br /> </p> </td> <td width="79"> <p><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">1926</span></p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <meta equiv="CONTENT-TYPE" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><title></title><meta name="GENERATOR" content="OpenOffice.org 3.1 (Win32)"><style type="text/css"> <!-- @page { margin: 0.79in } P { margin-bottom: 0.08in } --> </style> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Sumber:</span></p><div style="text-align: left; font-family: arial;"> </div><p style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Purba, Michael; 2006; <i>Kimia Untuk SMA Kelas XI Semester 1Jilid 2A; </i><span style="font-style: normal;">Jakarta:Erlangga</span></span></p><div style="text-align: left; font-family: arial;"> </div><p style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Suyatno, Aris Purwadi, Henang Widiyanto, Kuncoro PR; 2007; </span><i>Kimia Untuk SMA/MA Kelas XI; </i><span style="font-style: normal;">Jakarta: Grasindo</span></span></p><div style="text-align: left; font-family: arial;"> </div><p style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-style: normal;">www.chem-is-try.com</span></span></p><div style="text-align: left; font-family: arial;"> </div><p style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-style: normal;">www.fordhamprep.org</span></span></p><div style="text-align: left; font-family: arial;"> </div><p style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Encyclopaedia Brittanica 2007</span></span></p> adminbelajarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05777739124848995835noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-173521480956809529.post-40569014804367868692009-02-05T21:38:00.000+07:002009-02-05T21:40:26.696+07:00Hidrokarbon - Pengantar<title></title><meta name="GENERATOR" content="OpenOffice.org 3.0 (Win32)"><style type="text/css"> <!-- @page { margin: 0.79in } P { margin-bottom: 0.08in } A:link { so-language: zxx } --> </style> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-decoration: none; font-family: arial;" align="center"><b>KIMIA</b></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-decoration: none; font-family: arial;" align="center">
<br /></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; text-decoration: none; font-family: arial;" align="center"><b>HIDROKARBON – PENGANTAR</b></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-family: arial;" align="center">
<br /></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-family: arial;" align="justify"><b>Pendahuluan</b></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-family: arial;" align="justify">Hidrokarbon adalah pengantar menuju kimia organik serta berbagai macam teknik perminyakan.</p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-family: arial;" align="justify"><b>Pengertian</b></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-family: arial;" align="justify">Hidrokarbon adalah senyawa yang terdiri dari hidrogen (H) dan karbon (C). Hidrokarbon adalah dasar dari kimia organik. Mengapa? Karena, pada awalnya, jenis senyawa ini hanya ditemukan pada zat organik. Pada perkembangannya, ia memiliki jenis yang jauh lebih banyak dari di alam. </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-family: arial;" align="justify"><b>Kekhasan / kespesialan</b></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-family: arial;" align="justify">Hidrokarbon adalah khas, terutama karena sifat dari atom karbon itu sendiri. Atom karbon memiliki valensi 4, sehingga membuka kemungkinan menarik banyak atom lain. Selain itu, ukurannya yang lebih kecil (hanya 2 lapis) memperkuat ikatan. Selain itu, mungkin juga terbentuk ikatan rangkap dua atau tiga. </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-family: arial;" align="justify"><b>Ikatan rantai hidrokarbon</b></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-family: arial;" align="justify">Ikatan ini yang sering dilihat berbentuk garis-garis saat ada gambar mengenai reaksi kimia. Memang, karena inilah hal yang membuatnya istimewa. Bentuk ikatannya beragam dan mudah digambar, karena sederhana. Perlu dicatat, ini adalah ikatan kovalen (C&H).</p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-family: arial;" align="justify">Dikena istilah atom karbon primer, sekunder, tersier, dan kuartener. Ini semua berhubungan dengan atom karbon lainnya yang terikat pada suatu atom karbon. Karena hanya memiliki 4 atom valensi, maka atom terikat maksimal 4 buah. </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-family: arial;" align="justify"><b>Sifat-sifat fisis senyawa organik (hidrokarbon dll.)</b></p> <ul style="font-family: arial;"><li><p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify">Kurang stabil pada pemanasan (lebih mudah mengurai/berubah bentuk saat dipanaskan). Contoh : antara memanaskan gula (organik) dan garam (non organik)</p> </li><li><p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify">Titik leleh dan titik didih (lebih rendah dari senyawa anorganik). Contoh : lihat percobaan di atas.</p> </li><li><p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify">Kelarutan (lebih mudah larut pada pelarut non polar (kloroform) dari pada pelarut polar (air)). </p> </li><li><p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify">Kereaktifan (kurang reaktif / bereaksi lebih sedikit/ bereaksi lebih lambat)</p> </li></ul> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-family: arial;" align="justify"><b>Sumber :</b></p> <p style="font-family: arial;" align="justify">Purba, Michael; Kimia Untuk SMA Kelas X Semester 2 Jilid 1 B; Jakarta: Erlangga</p> <p style="line-height: 115%; font-family: arial;" align="justify">Taufiq, Agus dan Purawisastra, Suryana; Kimia Untuk SMA dan MA Kelas X; Jakarta: Widya Utama</p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify">
<br /></p> adminbelajarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05777739124848995835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-173521480956809529.post-70926005953010222332009-02-03T22:43:00.000+07:002009-02-03T22:46:10.739+07:00Reduksi-Oksidasi<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CPersonal%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:officedocumentsettings> <o:relyonvml/> <o:allowpng/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><link rel="themeData" href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CPersonal%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx"><link rel="colorSchemeMapping" href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CPersonal%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> 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67698703 67698713 67698715 67698703 67698713 67698715;} @list l3:level1 {mso-level-tab-stop:none; mso-level-number-position:left; margin-left:.75in; text-indent:-.25in;} ol {margin-bottom:0in;} ul {margin-bottom:0in;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin-top:0in; mso-para-margin-right:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt; mso-para-margin-left:0in; line-height:115%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-size:100%;"><b style=""><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";" >KIMIA <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-size:100%;"><b style=""><span style=";font-family:";" >REDUKSI – OKSIDASI<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><b style=""><u><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";" >Pendahuluan</span></u></b></span><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >
<br />Reaksi reduksi-oksidasi (redoks) adalah mengenai teknik-teknik elektrokimia dan berperan penting dalam pembuatan baterai, walaupun bekerja dalam berbagai hal sehari-hari seperti perkaratan logam sampai sistem pernapasan sendiri.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><b style=""><u><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";" >Pengertian<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Pengertian reaksi redoks berubah sesuai zaman. Perlu diingat, <b style=""><i style=""><u>keduanya selalu terjadi bersamaan</u></i></b>. Berikut adalah perkembangannya :<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Pengikatan dan Pelepasan Oksigen<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Pada awalnya, reaksi redoks adalah reaksi yang melibatkan oksigen. Karena itu didapat kata oksidasi, yang berarti mendapat(mengikat) oksigen. Reduksi, kebalikannya, melepas oksigen. Contoh:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Zn(s) + CuO(s) -> ZnO(s) + Cu(s)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Disini, Zn teroksidasi (menjadi ZnO) dan Cu tereduksi (menjadi Cu)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >CuO(s) + H<sub>2</sub>(g) -> Cu(s) + H<sub>2</sub>O(g)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Cu tereduksi (menjadi Cu) dan H<sub>2</sub> teroksidasi (menjadi H<sub>2</sub>O)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Sumber oksigennya disebut oksidator, dan yang mendapat oksigen disebut reduktor. <span style="background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">Jadi, prinsipnya, oksidator direduksi & reduktor dioksidasi.</span> Hasilnya disebut sebagai hasil oksidasi/ hasil reduksi.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">2.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Pengikatan dan Pelepasan Elektron<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Akhirnya, disadari bahwa reaksi yang sama, dapat dilakukan tanpa melibatkan oksigen sedi-kitpun. Contoh, reaksi [Ca+O->CaO] dan [Ca+S->CaS] terdapat kesamaan, yaitu atom Ca melepas dua elektron valensi (gambar struktur lewisnya. Jadi, dilakukan revisi. Oksidasi berarti menerima elektron & mengalami reduksi dan reduksi menerima elektron & mengalami oksidasi. Dari sini, dikenal prinsip ‘setengah reaksi’(<i style="">half reaction</i>), yaitu reaksi oksidasi atau reaksi reduksi saja. Contoh (seperti pada reaksi elektrolisis):<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >H2 + F2 -> 2HF<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Reduksi: F + e -> F<sup>-<o:p></o:p></sup></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Oksidasi : H + e -> H<sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Redoks : H + F -> H<sup>-</sup> + F<sup>-</sup> atau H + F -> HF<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Setengah reaksi tersebut, bila dijumlahkan, akan menjadi reaksi redoks (lihat lagi bagian larutan elektrolit, reaksi elektrolisis).<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">3.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Perubahan Bilangan Oksidasi (Biloks)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Lama kelamaan, disadari bahwa makin sulit untuk menentukan unsur mana yang mereduksi dan mana yang direduksi. Sebagai contoh, lihat reaksi berikut :<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >4KMnO<sub>4</sub>(aq) + 6H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>(aq) -> 2K<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>(aq) + 4MnSO<sub>4</sub>(aq) + 6H<sub>2</sub>O(l) + 5O<sub>2</sub>(g)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Karena sulit, maka dilakukan pembentukan ulang konsep redoks. Dikenalkan konsep bilangan oksidasi. Jadi, oksidasi diartikan sebagai peningkatan bilangan oksidasi dan reduksi sebagai pengurangan bilangan oksidasi. Bilangan oksidasi (biloks) adalah muatan (charge) natural sebuah atom. Biloks akan dijelaskan lebih lanjut nanti. Mengapa yang mendapat elektron disebut direduksi (dikurangi)? Karena yang direduksi bukan jumlah elektronnya, tapi nilai muatannya (biloks) yang berkurang (negatif). Dapat disingkat OIL RIG (Oxidation is loss, reduction is gain : Oksidasi melepas, reduksi mendapat). Satu prinsip yang tersisa, adalah <span style="background: yellow none repeat scroll 0% 0%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">atom yang terikat pada oksigen pasti teroksidasi</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><b style=""><u><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";" >Bilangan Oksidasi<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Bilangan oksidasi (biloks) adalah nilai muatan alami atom (+2, -3, 0, dll) dalam suatu keadaan (sendiri atau berikatan), atau dalam bahasa ilmiah : ‘Kemampuan atom dalam melepaskan atau menerima elektron pada pembentukan senyawa’ ATAU ‘Besar muatan yang dibawa suatu atom dalam senyawa, jika semua elektron ikatan didistribusikan pada unsur yang lebih elektronegatif’. Konsep biloks ini penting dalam penentuan reaksi redoks modern, dengan alasan yang sudah disebutkan. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0in; text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Terdapat aturan main penentuan biloks, yaitu :<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Biloks atom yang bebas (tidak berikatan dengan atom unsur lain) seperti C, I<sub>2</sub>, O<sub>2</sub>, Na, dll adalah 0.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">2.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Biloks golongan 1A, 2A, dan 3A berurut +1, +2, dan +3<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">3.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Biloks O (oksigen) adalah -2, kecuali pada senyawa peroksida, superoksida, dan florin. Dengan peroksida (senyawa dengan kation O<sub>2</sub>) biloks O=-1. Pada florin (F<sub>2</sub>O), biloksnya dapat menjadi +2. Pada superoksida, biloksnya menjadi -1/2.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">4.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Biloks F (florin) selalu -1 (paling elektronegatif)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">5.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Biloks H (hidrogen) selalu +1, kecuali pada logam hidrida, yaitu -1<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">6.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Biloks unsur logam selalu positif<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">7.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Biloks unsur logam selalu sama dengan muatan ionnya <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">8.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Biloks unsur poliatom (SO<sub>4</sub>, C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>, dll) bervariasi<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">9.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Biloks suatu senyawa lengkap (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>, HCl, KOH, NaCl, dl) selalu 0 (netral).<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Contoh pemakaian (sesuai urutan di atas):<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >H<sub>2</sub>, Cl<sub>2</sub>, Na, C = 0<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">2.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Mg= +2, Na= +1, dsb (lihat tabel periodik unsur)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">3.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >CaO, biloks O= -2; H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>, BaO<sub>2</sub>, biloks O= -1; KO<sub>2</sub>, biloks O= -1/2; F<sub>2</sub>O, biloks O= +2, karena biloks F= -1<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">4.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >HF, biloks F=-1, karena F adalah unsur paling elektronegatif<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">5.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Logam hidrida, LiH, biloks H= -1, karena aturan no.6<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">6.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Biloks Ge=4, Fe=2 &3, dsb<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">7.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Cukup jelas<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">8.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Akan dijelaskan lebih lanjut<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">9.<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Akan dijelaskan lebih lanjut<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><b style=""><u><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";" >Menentukan biloks suatu unsur dalam sebuah ikatan<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Langkah:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 39.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:Symbol;font-size:100%;" ><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Gunakan rumus : (indeks unsur 1 x biloks unsur 1) + (indeks unsur 2 x biloks unsur 2) +…..+ (indeks unsur n x biloks unsur n) = muatan ( tergantung. Untuk senyawa biasa 0 dan untuk poliatom disesuaikan)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 39.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:Symbol;font-size:100%;" ><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Masukkan bilangan masing-masing<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 39.3pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:Symbol;font-size:100%;" ><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Selesaikan, maka variabel yang dicari akan terlihat<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Contoh:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Poliatom SO<sub>4</sub><sup>-2</sup> , berapa biloks S?<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Dengan rumus, (1 x biloks S) + (4x (-2)) = -2<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style=""> </span>Biloks S= -2 + 8 = 6<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Senyawa Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, berapa biloks Fe?<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Dengan rumus, (2 x biloks Fe) + (3 x (-2)) = 0<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style=""> </span>2 Biloks Fe = 6,<span style=""> </span>Biloks Fe= 6/2= 3<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><b style=""><u><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";" >Reaksi Disproporsionasi(otoredoks) dan Konproporsionasi<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Reaksi khusus ini terjadi apa bila sebuah unsur di satu sisi hanya ada di 1 senyawa, sementara di sisi lain terdapat lebih dari 1.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Reaksi disproprosionasi (otoredoks) adalah reaksi dimana reduktor dan oksidatornya sama (ingat kembali prinsip reduktor dan oksidator). Contoh sederhana:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >2 Sn<sup>2+</sup> -> Sn + Sn<sup>4+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Disini terlihat, atom Sn<sup>2+</sup> direduksi menjadi Sn dan dioksidasi menjadi Sn<sup>4+</sup>.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Reaksi konproposionasi adalah kebalikannya, dimana hasil reduksi dan hasil oksidasinya adalah sama. Contoh : 2H<sub>2</sub>S + SO<sub>2</sub> -> 3S + 2H<sub>2</sub>O<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Biloks S pada H<sub>2</sub>S adalah -2 dan pada SO<sub>2</sub> adalah +4, sementara ia 0 pada S. Maka, hasil reaksi yang sama tersebut harus berada di antara semua biloks reduktor dan oksidator.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Sumber:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Purba, Michael; Kimia Untuk SMA Kelas X Semester 2 Jilid 1 B; Jakarta: Erlangga<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Taufiq, Agus dan Purawisastra, Suryana; Kimia Untuk SMA dan MA Kelas X; Jakarta: Widya Utama<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Gonnick, Larry dan Criddle, Craig; Kartun Kimia; Jakarta: KPG<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Kitti, Sura; Latihan Mandiri Kimia Untuk SMA Kelas X; Jakarta: Penerbit Pelangi Indonesia<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >www.chem-is-try.org<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >en.wikipedia.org<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:100%;" >www.science.uwaterloo.ca<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:12;" ><span style="font-size:100%;">www.chemistrydaily.com</span><o:p></o:p></span></p> adminbelajarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05777739124848995835noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-173521480956809529.post-74423352389397700652009-01-20T21:35:00.004+07:002009-01-25T21:42:17.256+07:00Keanekaragaman Hayati<meta equiv="CONTENT-TYPE" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><title></title><meta name="GENERATOR" content="OpenOffice.org 3.0 (Win32)"><style type="text/css"> <!-- @page { margin: 0.79in } P { margin-bottom: 0.08in } --</style><div style="text-align: center;"><style type="text/css"><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span></span></style><span style="font-size:130%;"><u><b>Keanekaragaman Hayati</b></u></span></div> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="center" lang="en-GB">
<br /></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"><u><b>Pendahuluan</b></u></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify" lang="en-GB">Dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, kita melihat banyak variasi pada makhluk hidup di sekitar kita, termasuk manusia. Bagian ini akan membahas hal tersebut.</p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify" lang="en-GB">
<br /></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"><u><b>Pengertian</b></u></p> <p style="margin-left: 2.7in; text-indent: -2.7in; margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> Keanekaragaman hayati (Biodiversity) : keseluruhan kekayaan makhluk hidup di muka bumi, termasuk gen dan ekosistem yang terbentuk olehnya.</p> <p style="margin-left: 1.34in; text-indent: -1.33in; margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> Megabiodiversity : Keanekaragaman hayati yang luar biasa besar, seperti yang terdapat pada daerah hutan hujan tropis di Indonesia.</p> <p style="margin-left: 1.34in; text-indent: -1.33in; margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify" lang="en-GB">
<br /></p> <p style="margin-left: 1.34in; text-indent: -1.33in; margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <u><b>Jenis Keanekaragaman Hayati </b></u> </p> <p style="margin-left: 1.34in; text-indent: -1.33in; margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <i>Keanekaragaman Tingkat Gen</i></p> <p style="text-indent: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> Antar makhluk hidup sejenis terdapat berbagai perbedaan. Sebagai contoh, manusia ada yang berhidung mancung dan ada yang berhidung pesek. Perbedaan bentuk hidung tersebut, terjadi pada jenis yang sama, yaitu <i><span style="text-decoration: none;">Homo sapiens</span></i><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;">. Jadi, keanekaragaman tingkat gen adalah perbedaan yang terdapat pada makhluk yang satu jenis.</span></span></p> <p style="text-indent: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Keanekaragaman tingkat gen terjadi pada tingkat yang terlihat dan tidak terlihat. Contoh yang terlihat adalah ciri-ciri fisik seperti warna rambut, tinggi badan, dan lainnya. Ciri terlihat disebut genotipe. Bila tak terlihat, keanekaragaman juga dapat terjadi pada susunan gen. Ciri tak terlihat disebut fenotipe. Keanekaragaman ini akan membentuk model perbedaan (variasi) yang disebut varietas. Tiap varietas dapat memiliki ciri yang berbeda satu dengan yang lain. Penyebab muncul varietas, selain gen, adalah faktor lingkungan (cuaca, iklim, dll).</span></span></p> <p style="text-indent: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <i><span style="text-decoration: none;">Keanekaragaman Tingkat Spesies</span></i></p> <p style="text-indent: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">Dalam satu tingkat familial, terdapat beberapa jenis spesies yang termasuk di dalamnya. Sebagai contoh, padi dan gandum adalah tumbuhan yang satu familial, Graminae. Namun, pada keduanya terdapat perbedaan, seperti sifat masing-masing tanaman. </span> </p> <p style="text-indent: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <i><span style="text-decoration: none;">Keanekaragaman Tingkat Ekosistem</span></i></p> <p style="text-indent: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">Ekosistem adalah hubungan timbal-balik antar </span></p> <p style="text-indent: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"><span style="text-decoration: none;">makhluk hidup dengan lingkungannya. Jadi, ekosistem adalah gabungan makhluk hidup yang terdapat pada suatu lokasi dengan ciri tertentu (ekosistem rawa, pantai, hutan hujan, dll). Keanekaragaman ekosistem adalah keberagaman makhluk hidup yang terdapat pada berbagai ekosistem, seperti tumbuhan kelapa di ekosistem pantai, aren hidup di pegunungan basah, dan rotan ada di hutan hujan.</span></p> <p style="text-indent: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">Bioma adalah kumpulan berbagai makhluk hidup dalam satu wilayah luas di Bumi, dengan kondisi geografis dan kondisi iklim yang sesuai. Bioma biasanya memiliki jenis-jenis makhluk hidup (terutama tumbuhan) yang menjadi ciri khas.</span></p> <p style="margin-left: 1.34in; text-indent: -1.33in; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: left;" lang="en-GB"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6zUvOaxCwbp0oYKDSxVmZI0PUMhPQw6JlbuuA5NZv1B5uzojZSexMhoxBOWc-GjY0OYf0Mf7PToZU16tozyOjMkGkk_iX4QwMMMj4-L5XrRn20XUZ4UASiUFZ7Ck3zzJnLtSfSE9rkM2s/s1600-h/Bioma+dunia-inggris.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 333px; height: 243px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj6zUvOaxCwbp0oYKDSxVmZI0PUMhPQw6JlbuuA5NZv1B5uzojZSexMhoxBOWc-GjY0OYf0Mf7PToZU16tozyOjMkGkk_iX4QwMMMj4-L5XrRn20XUZ4UASiUFZ7Ck3zzJnLtSfSE9rkM2s/s320/Bioma+dunia-inggris.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5293385157871354338" border="0" /></a></p> <p style="text-indent: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">Dari gambar di atas, diambil beberapa bioma terkenal, seperti:</span></p> <p style="text-indent: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">Gurun</span></p> <p style="text-indent: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">Gurun, bioma kering dan hampir tak berair. Makhluk hidup yang ada umumnya reptil & karnivora kecil yang hidup di dalam tanah. Tumbuhan hampir tak ada kecuali beberapa jenis semak. </span> </p> <p style="text-indent: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">Tundra</span></p> <p style="text-indent: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">Tundra adalah daerah yang terdapat di lingkar utara Bumi. Daerah ini sama dingin dan sama kering dengan gurun. Hewan yang hidup terdiri dari beruang kutub, berang-berang, rusa kutub, dan lainnya. Tumbuhan yang hidup adalah lumut.</span></p> <p style="text-indent: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">Taiga</span></p> <p style="text-indent: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">Taiga adalah daerah dengan ketinggian tinggi dan bersuhu amat dingin. Daerah ini diisi oleh hutan tumbuhan konifera (duri jarum) seperti cemara dan pinus. Hewan yang hidup terdiri dari rusa dan tupai.</span></p> <p style="margin-left: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">Hutan Hujan</span></p> <p style="margin-left: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">Hutan hujan adalah daerah yang berada di lintasan khatulistiwa, bersuhu stabil sepanjang sepanjang tahun, dan memiliki keanekaragaman tertinggi di dunia. Indonesia termasuk daerah ini. Berbagai makhluk hidup tinggal, tidak ada satu jenis yang mendominasi. </span> </p> <p style="margin-left: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">Sabana</span></p> <p style="margin-left: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">Sabana adalah daerah padang rumput kering dengan semak dan pepohonon yang jarang. Contoh tumbuhan dominan, selain rumput, adalah pohon akasia di Afrika. Terdapat juga berbagai hewan seperti jerapah, gajah Afrika, dan lainnya.</span></p> <p style="margin-left: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">Padang Rumput</span></p> <p style="margin-left: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">Padang rumput beriklim subtropis/sedang. Bioma ini diisi oleh berbagai jenis burung, bison, serigala, dan lainnya. Tidak ada tumbuhan yang menonjol.</span></p> <p style="margin-left: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB">
<br /></p> <p style="margin-left: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <u><b>Tindakan Manusia Yang Mengubah Keanekaragaman Hayati</b></u></p> <p style="margin-left: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB">
<br /></p> <p style="margin-left: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <i><span style="text-decoration: none;">Negatif (mengurangi):</span></i></p> <p style="margin-left: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">a. Penebangan hutan </span> </p> <p style="margin-left: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">b. Pencemaran lingkungan (pembuangan limbah/ penggunaan pestisida)</span></p> <ol start="100" type="i"><p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">c. Perusakan/perambahan habitat untuk berbagai keperluan (ladang, perumahan, dll)</span></p><p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">d. Erosi (pengurangan) gen, karena seleksi manusia atas varietas unggul </span> </p></ol> <p style="margin-left: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <i><span style="text-decoration: none;">Positif (menjaga) : </span></i> </p> <p style="margin-left: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">a. Reboisasi (menanam kembali hutan)</span></p> <p style="margin-left: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">b. Mencegah pencemaran lingkungan, dengan pengolahan limbah dan pengurangan pestisida</span></p> <ol start="100" type="i"><p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">c. Melindungi kawasan tertentu</span></p></ol> <p style="margin-left: -0.01in; margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB">
<br /></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <u><b>Usaha Manusia Menjaga Keanekaragaman Hayati</b></u></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB">
<br /></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"><i><span style="text-decoration: none;">Pelestarian In Situ</span></i></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">Pelestarian yang dilakukan langsung pada habitat asli makhluk tersebut, dengan pembuatan taman nasional seperti TN Komodo di Pulau Komodo (Komodo) , TN Ujung Kulon di Banten (Badak bercula satu), TN Kerinci Seblat di Jambi(</span><i><span style="text-decoration: none;">Raflesia Arnoldii</span></i><span style="text-decoration: none;">), dan TN Tanjung Puting di Kalimantan (Orangutan). Selain itu, ada juga Cagar Alam dan Suaka Margasatwa.</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"><i><span style="text-decoration: none;">Pelestarian Ex Situ</span></i></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">Pelestarian yang dilakukan di luar habitat aslinya. Umumnya, hanya memuat contoh dari satu spesies saja. Dilakukan dengan pendirian Kebun Botani, seperti Kebun Raya Bogor (Herbarium Bogoriense), Kebun Raya Cibodas, Kebun Raya Purwodadi. Terdapat juga kebun koleksi dan kebun plasma nutfah (makhluk hidup). Keduanya sama-sama mengoleksi, namun kebun koleksi hanya bertujuan memelihara dalam keadaan hidup, sementara kebun plasma nutfah terutam digunakan untuk penelitian pengembangan varietas unggul.</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="justify" lang="en-GB">
<br /></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-style: normal;" align="left" lang="en-GB"> <span style="text-decoration: none;">Sumber :</span></p> <p style="font-style: normal;" align="left" lang="en-GB"><span style="font-family:Garamond,serif;"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Susilowarno, R. Gunawan; dkk; Biologi untuk SMA/MA kelas X; Jakarta:Grasindo</span></span></p> <p><span style="font-family:Garamond,serif;">Saktiyono; Seribu Pena Biologi untuk SMA/MA Kelas X; Jakarta:Erlangga</span></p> <p><span style="font-family:Garamond,serif;">Karmana, Oman; Cerdas Belajar Biologi untuk Kelas X; Jakarta: Grafindo Media Pratama</span></p> <p>www.blueplanetbiomes.org</p> <p>www.learnontheinternet.co.uk</p> <p>www.biobasics.gc.ca</p> adminbelajarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05777739124848995835noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-173521480956809529.post-11077951699370151512009-01-16T19:12:00.003+07:002009-01-16T19:24:08.105+07:00Larutan Elektrolit
<br /><meta equiv="CONTENT-TYPE" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><title></title><meta name="GENERATOR" content="OpenOffice.org 3.0 (Win32)"><style type="text/css"> <!-- @page { margin: 0.79in } P { margin-bottom: 0.08in } --> </style> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-weight: bold;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:Arial,sans-serif;font-size:130%;" >KIMIA </span> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in; font-weight: bold;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:Arial,sans-serif;font-size:130%;" >Larutan Elektrolit</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="center">
<br /></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Pendahuluan</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Berikut adalah penjelasan mengenai konsep larutan elektrolit. Konsep ini akan membantu menjelaskan mengenai proses selanjutnya, yaitu reaksi redoks (reduksi-oksidasi). Proses ini, walau tidak dibahas di kelas 10, juga membuka jalan bagi pembuatan baterai.</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Pengertian Larutan Elektrolit</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Larutan elektrolit adalah larutan yang dapat menghantarkan listrik. Sementara, larutan non-elektrolit adalah larutan yang tidak dapat menghantarkan listrik. Larutan yang dimaksud sendiri adalah larutan akuades/air murni (H2O) yang dicampur bahan lain. Air digunakan sebagai pelarut karena air adalah pelarut paling umum. Air memiliki ciri khusus, yaitu ia bersifat polar. Salah unsur bersifat positif dan yang lain negatif, sehingga ia dapat menarik apa yang ia mau. Karena itu, ia sebenarnya adalah elektrolit dan dapat menghantar listrik.</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify">
<br /></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Alasan mengapa larutan elektrolit dapat mengalirkan listrik karena larutan elektrolit memiliki ion-ion bebas yang dapat bergerak bebas sesukanya, seperti diungkapkan oleh teori ion Svante Arrhenius. Pada prinsipnya, saat larutan (air+zat penghantar) dialiri listrik, maka molekul zat yang bercampur tersebut akan berubah. Sebagai contoh:</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">2H<sup><span style="font-size:180%;">+</span></sup>(aq) + 2Cl<sup><span style="font-size:180%;">-</span></sup>(aq) → H<sub>2</sub>(g) + Cl<sub>2</sub>(g)</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">2HCl(aq) → H<sub>2</sub>(g) + Cl<sub>2</sub>(g)</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Jadi, pada saat larutan asam klorida (HCl) dialiri oleh listrik, maka molekulnya akan dipaksa untuk berpisah dan terpecah menjadi gas H<sub>2</sub> dan Cl<sub><span style="font-size:100%;">2</span></sub>. Reaksi ini adalah contoh reaksi redoks yang sederhana dan sering. Pengertian redoks akan dijelaskan dalam seri kimia selanjutnya. Untuk tahu, reaksi tersebut bernama elektrolisis (elektro=listrik, lysis=pemecahan).</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Zat yang disebut elektrolit adalah zat yang apabila dicampur dengan air (pelarut polar) akan larut/mengurai menjadi ion (lihat contoh di atas) seperti NaCl, HCl, dan lainnya. Sementara, zat nonelektrolit adalah zat yang saat dicampur dengan air tidak mengurai, namun tetap dalam bentuk molekul netral. </span> </p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Zat elektrolit <b>harus</b>lah polar, karena menggunakan air. Se</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">benarnya tidak pelarutnya tidak harus air, yang penting polar. Air dipilih karena amat mudah melarutkan. Yang dapat terlarut adalah senyawa ion (bentuk lelehan dan cairan, padatan tidak menghantar) seperti NaCl, NaOH, dan lainnya (pelajari lagi Ikatan Kimia) atau senyawa kovalen polar, walaupun tak semuanya begitu (HCl & CH<sub>3</sub>COOH menghantar, sementara CH<sub>4</sub> tidak).</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Elektrolit dapat dibagi menjadi elektrolit kuat dan elektrolit lemah. Elektrolit kuat adalah zat yang seluruh zatnya akan terurai dan tidak membentuk molekul netral. Anggotanya adalah larutan garam-garam ion di air (NaCl, KBr, CuCl<sub>2</sub>, CuSO<sub>4</sub>, ZnCl<sub>4</sub>, dst), lelehan senyawa ion padat (PbBr2, Al2O3, PbI2, dst), asam mineral di air (HCl, H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>, HNO<sub>3</sub>, dst), dan basa dalam air (NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)<sub>2</sub>, dst). Sementara, elektrolit lemah adalah elektrolit yang mengurai hanya sebagian. Contohnya, HC<sub>2</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub> yang hanya mengurai 25%. Sisanya tetap menjadi molekul netral. Untuk menyatakan kekuatan elektrolit, ia diukur dengan derajat ionisasi atau derajat disosiasi. Nilai maksimal (paling kuat)=1 dan minimal (terlemah/tak menghantar)=0. Cara menghitungnya adalah dengan membagi mol zat mengion (terurai) dengan mol zat awal (sebelum dialiri listrik). Simbolnya adalah alpha.</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify">
<br /></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Mengerti reaksi elektrolisis</span></p><p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqa8Ty1xVNKdP10ZDvYnhIZqKUl2EITp2AVE3bl-0Gh_dcYuhhU_3eB_v08BEVR24Q8YhY4Afhqi1aC5xWZuLReEP6c5DGSDmbgW3w5GyXGgGDfh3E0X8Er2BYAy-rsJKIcSmPYoN1Bjem/s1600-h/elektrolisis-inggris.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 400px; height: 241px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqa8Ty1xVNKdP10ZDvYnhIZqKUl2EITp2AVE3bl-0Gh_dcYuhhU_3eB_v08BEVR24Q8YhY4Afhqi1aC5xWZuLReEP6c5DGSDmbgW3w5GyXGgGDfh3E0X8Er2BYAy-rsJKIcSmPYoN1Bjem/s400/elektrolisis-inggris.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5291865904174528482" border="0" /></a></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Secara sederhana, maka akan diambil contoh larutan HCl (asam klorida). Terdapat dua kutub. Yang positif disebut anoda dan yang negatif disebut katoda. Kedua kutub yang disambungkan pada baterai diwakilkan oleh pensil (walau apapun yang menghantar seperti karbon dan logam dapat dipakai, asal sama). Antara baterai dan pensil terdapat lampu (lihat gambar). Pada saat baterai disambungkan, reaksi yang terjadi:</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">HCl(aq) → H+(g) + Cl-(g)</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">Setelah terpecah, ion positif bergerak ke katoda dan negatif bergerak ke katoda (lawan jenis):</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">2H<sup>+</sup>(aq) + 2e → H<sub>2</sub>(g)</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">2Cl<sup>-</sup>(aq) → Cl<sub>2</sub>(g) + 2e</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;"><span lang="en-GB"><i>e</i></span><span lang="en-GB"> adalah elektron. Ia bukanlah unsur dan bermuatan negatif. Sebagai catatan, mengapa H</span><sub><span lang="en-GB">2</span></sub><span lang="en-GB"> dan Cl</span><sub><span lang="en-GB">2</span></sub><span lang="en-GB">, bukan H dan Cl, karena H, N, O, dan golongan 7A harus ditulis dalam bentuk ganda (indeks 2) saat tidak berikatan dengan unsur lain. Lalu :</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;">2H<sup><span style="font-size:180%;">+</span></sup>(aq) + 2Cl<sup><span style="font-size:180%;">-</span></sup>(aq) → H<sub>2</sub>(g) + Cl<sub>2</sub>(g)</span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="center"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;"><span lang="en-GB">2HCl(aq) → H</span><sub><span lang="en-GB">2</span></sub><span lang="en-GB">(g) + Cl</span><sub><span lang="en-GB">2</span></sub><span lang="en-GB">(g)</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;"><span lang="en-GB">Secara sederhana, inilah reaksi elektrolisis. Ciri yang dapat terlihat melalui percobaan langsung adalah bahwa lampu menyala dan muncul gelembung gas pada anoda dan katoda. Selain itu, dapat diketahui kekuatan suatu zat elektrolit. Pada molaritas (kekentalan, lihat lagi bab stoikiometri) yang sama, maka lampu zat yang lebih kuat akan menyala lebih terang karena lebih banyak yang ion terurai dan elektron mengalir.</span></span></p><p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><meta equiv="CONTENT-TYPE" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><title></title><meta name="GENERATOR" content="OpenOffice.org 3.0 (Win32)"><style type="text/css"> <!-- @page { margin: 0.79in } P { margin-bottom: 0.08in } A:link { so-language: zxx } --> </style> </p><p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;"><span lang="en-GB">Sumber:</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;"><span lang="en-GB">Purba, Michael; Kimia untuk Kelas X Semester 2; Jakarta:Erlangga</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;"><span lang="en-GB">Taufiq, Agus;Purwawisastra, Suryana;Kimia untuk SMA dan MA kelas X;Jakarta:Widya Utama</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;"><span lang="en-GB">library.thinkquest.org</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/"><span lang="en-GB">www.science.uwaterloo.ca</span></a></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.chem-is-try.org/"><span lang="en-GB">www.chem-is-try.org</span></a></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify"><span style="font-family:Arial,sans-serif;"><span lang="en-GB">www.arizonaenergy.org</span></span></p> <p style="margin-bottom: 0in;" align="justify">
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<br /></p> <meta equiv="CONTENT-TYPE" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><title></title><meta name="GENERATOR" content="OpenOffice.org 3.0 (Win32)"><style type="text/css"> <!-- @page { margin: 0.79in } P { margin-bottom: 0.08in } --></style>adminbelajarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05777739124848995835noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-173521480956809529.post-61512576473111771312008-12-14T15:53:00.003+07:002008-12-14T16:48:38.928+07:00Gerak Lurus<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CPersonal%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if !mso]> <style> v\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} o\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} w\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} .shape {behavior:url(#default#VML);} </style> <![endif]--><link 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font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">FISIKA </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">Gerak Lurus</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><u>Besaran Pada Gerak Lurus<o:p></o:p></u></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Untuk membahas gerak lurus, maka perlu dimengerti konsep posisi, jarak, perpindahan, kecepatan dan kelajuan sesaat dan rata-rata, juga percepatan.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style="">Posisi, Jarak dan Perpindahan<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Posisi adalah letak suatu benda terhadap suatu acuan tertentu. Sebagai contoh, jika ada pohon, mobil, dan rumah berurutan, maka dapat dikatakan mobil ada di antar pohon dan rumah, atau mobil ada di samping pohon. Posisi itu dapat ditentukan karena ada titik patokan yang pasti pohon, untuk mengetahui posisi mobil.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Jarak (x) adalah panjang lintasan yang dilalui suatu benda dalam selang waktu tertentu. Satuannya satuan panjang (meter, mil, dll). Contoh, apabila sebuah mobil balap melintasi jarak di sirkuit sejauh 500 meter, maka jarak yang ditempuh adalah 500 meter, tidak peduli apakah berbelok atau lurus terus.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Perpindahan (x juga) adalah perubahan posisi suatu benda karena adanya perubahan waktu. Satuannya juga satuan panjang (meter, mil,dll). Sebagai contoh, apabila seseorang berjalan maju tiga meter lalu mundur tiga meter, maka perpindahannya nol, karena ia tidak berubah dari titik awal. Namun, jika ia berjalan maju tiga meter lalu ke kanan empat meter, maka ia berpindah. Besar perpindahan diukur dengan vektor.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style="">Kecepatan dan Kelajuan<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Kecepatan, juga kelajuan, memiliki dua jenis, yaitu sesaat dan rata-rata. Yang sesaat akan dijelaskan lebih dahulu.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Kelajuan, secara umum, adalah jarak dibagi waktu (v=<!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:omath><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>∆</m:r><m:r>x</m:r><m:r>/</m:r><m:r>∆</m:r><m:r>t</m:r></span></i></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; position: relative; top: 5.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600" spt="75" preferrelative="t" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" filled="f" stroked="f"> <v:stroke joinstyle="miter"> <v:formulas> <v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"> <v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"> <v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"> <v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"> <v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"> <v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"> <v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"> <v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"> </v:formulas> <v:path extrusionok="f" gradientshapeok="t" connecttype="rect"> <o:lock ext="edit" aspectratio="t"> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:29.25pt;"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Personal\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.png" title="" chromakey="white"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span><!--[endif]-->x/t). Kelajuan adalah besaran skalar, yaitu besaran yang berarah (vektor). Kelajuan sesaat adalah kelajuan yang ada pada saat itu. Jika anda melihat spidometer di mobil menunjukkan angak 60 km/jam, maka itu adalah kelajuan sesaat.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Kecepatan, secara umum, adalah perpindahan dibagi waktu (v=x/t<!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:omath><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>∆</m:r><m:r>x</m:r><m:r>/</m:r><m:r>∆</m:r><m:r>t</m:r></span></i></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; position: relative; top: 5.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:29.25pt;height:15pt'"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Personal\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.png" title="" chromakey="white"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span><!--[endif]-->). Kecepatan adalah besaran vektor, memerlukan arah. Kecepatan sesaat adalah ketika anda melihat spidometer menunjukkan 60 km/jam dan anda tahu kendaraan sedang menuju utara. Jadi, yang kecepatan sesaat adalah kelajuan sesaat beserta arah gerak benda tersebut. Kecepatan rata-rata diukur dengan velocitometer.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Kelajuan rata-rata, adalah jarak tempuh total dibagi waktu untuk menempuhnya (v=<!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:omath><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>∆</m:r><m:r>x</m:r><m:r>/</m:r><m:r>∆</m:r><m:r>t</m:r></span></i></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; position: relative; top: 5.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:29.25pt;height:15pt'"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Personal\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.png" title="" chromakey="white"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span><!--[endif]-->x/t). Jadi, misalkan anda naik sepeda menempuh jarak 500 meter dalam 10 detik, maka kelajuan anda 10 m/s. Kecepatan rata-rata adalah perpindahan dibagi waktu untuk berpindah(v=<!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:omath><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>∆</m:r><m:r>x</m:r><m:r>/</m:r><m:r>∆</m:r><m:r>t</m:r></span></i></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; position: relative; top: 5.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:29.25pt;height:15pt'"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Personal\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image001.png" title="" chromakey="white"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span><!--[endif]-->x/t). Contoh, jika anda naik sepeda dengan 300 meter dari titik A ke B, lalu belok kanan dari B ke C sejauh 400 meter dengan total waktu 20 detik, maka kecepatan rata-rata anda adalah 2.5 m/s(untuk tahu perpindahan, lihat kembali bagian vektor). Kecepatan dan kelajuan rata-rata diukur hanya dengan penghitungan.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style="">Percepatan<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Percepatan (a) adalah perubahan kecepatan dalam satuan waktu. Percepatan ada yang sesaat, dapat juga rata-rata. Umumnya percepatan sesaat tidak dianggap, karena sulit mempertahankan percepatan tetap dalam pada saat bergerak. Percepatan rata-rata diukur dengan perubahan kecepatan dibagi perubahan waktu (a=<!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:omath><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>∆</m:r><m:r>v</m:r><m:r>/</m:r><m:r>∆</m:r><m:r>t</m:r></span></i></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; position: relative; top: 5.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:29.25pt;height:15pt'"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Personal\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image003.png" title="" chromakey="white"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span><!--[endif]--><span style="">^(delta)v/^t). Percepatan riil (bukan nol) hanya ada pada GLBB. Percepatan dapat diukur dengan menggunakan akselerometer.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""><span style="">Gerak Lurus Beraturan (GLB)<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Gerak lurus beraturan adalah gerak lurus yang memiliki kecepatan tetap. Ini adalah ciri khas dari gerak lurus beraturan. Selain itu, GLB tidak memiliki percepatan (a=0). <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Rumus yang berhubungan dengan GLB:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> <span style="font-size:100%;">v = ^x/^t</span></span></span></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:omath><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>v</m:r><m:r>=</m:r></span></i><m:f><m:fpr><span style="'font-family:"><m:ctrlpr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:fPr><m:num><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>∆</m:r><m:r>x</m:r></span></i></m:num><m:den><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>∆</m:r><m:r>t</m:r></span></i></m:den></m:f></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; position: relative; top: 8.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:30pt;height:21pt'"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Personal\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image005.png" title="" chromakey="white"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span><!--[endif]--></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> <span style="font-size:100%;">^x = vt</span></span></span></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:omath><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>∆</m:r><m:r>x</m:r><m:r>=</m:r><m:r>vt</m:r></span></i></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; position: relative; top: 4.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:37.5pt;height:15pt'"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Personal\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image007.png" title="" chromakey="white"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span><!--[endif]--></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> <span style="font-size:100%;">x=x'+vt (jarak adalah jarak awal ditambah kecepatan kali waktu)</span></span></span></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:omath><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>x</m:r><m:r>=</m:r></span></i><m:ssub><m:ssubpr><span style="'font-family:"><m:ctrlpr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:sSubPr><m:e><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>x</m:r></span></i></m:e><m:sub><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>o</m:r></span></i></m:sub></m:sSub><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>+</m:r><m:r>vt</m:r></span></i></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; position: relative; top: 5.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:55.5pt;height:15pt'"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Personal\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image009.png" title="" chromakey="white"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span><!--[endif]--></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style="">Gerak Lurus Berubah Beraturan (GLBB)<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Gerak lurus berubah beraturan (GLBB) adalah gerak suatu benda pada lintasan garis lurus dengan percepatan tetap. Percepatan tetap, artinya percepatan tersebut tidak berubah, baik positif maupun negatif. Jadi, apabila GLBB positif, maka gerak tersebut GLBB dipercepat, jika negatif, GLBB diperlambat.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Rumus yang berhubungan dengan GLBB:</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> <span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-family: arial;">a=^v/^t</span></span></span></span></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:omath><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>a</m:r><m:r>=</m:r></span></i><m:f><m:fpr><span style="'font-family:"><m:ctrlpr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:fPr><m:num><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>∆</m:r><m:r>v</m:r></span></i></m:num><m:den><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>∆</m:r><m:r>t</m:r></span></i></m:den></m:f></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; position: relative; top: 8.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:30pt;height:21pt'"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Personal\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image011.png" title="" chromakey="white"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span><!--[endif]--></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> <span style="font-size:100%;">v = v' +at</span></span></span></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:omath><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>v</m:r><m:r>=</m:r></span></i><m:ssub><m:ssubpr><span style="'font-family:"><m:ctrlpr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:sSubPr><m:e><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>v</m:r></span></i></m:e><m:sub><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>o</m:r><m:r> </m:r></span></i></m:sub></m:sSub><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>+</m:r><m:r>at</m:r></span></i></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; position: relative; top: 5.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:57pt;height:15pt'"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Personal\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image013.png" title="" chromakey="white"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span><!--[endif]--></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> <span style="font-size:100%;">^x=vt</span></span></span></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:omath><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>∆</m:r><m:r>x</m:r><m:r>=</m:r></span></i><m:acc><m:accpr><m:chr val="̅"><span style="'font-family:"><m:ctrlpr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:accPr><m:e><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>v</m:r></span></i></m:e></m:acc><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>t</m:r></span></i></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; position: relative; top: 4.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:38.25pt;height:15pt'"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Personal\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image015.png" title="" chromakey="white"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span><!--[endif]--></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> <span style="font-size:100%;">v rata-rata= 1/2(v' + v)</span> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:omath><m:acc><m:accpr><m:chr val="̅"><span style="'font-family:"><m:ctrlpr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:accPr><m:e><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>v</m:r></span></i></m:e></m:acc><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>=</m:r></span></i><m:f><m:fpr><span style="'font-family:"><m:ctrlpr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:fPr><m:num><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>1</m:r></span></i></m:num><m:den><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>2</m:r></span></i></m:den></m:f><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r> (</m:r><m:r>v</m:r><m:r>+</m:r></span></i><m:ssub><m:ssubpr><span style="'font-family:"><m:ctrlpr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:sSubPr><m:e><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>v</m:r></span></i></m:e><m:sub><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>0</m:r></span></i></m:sub></m:sSub><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>)</m:r></span></i></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; position: relative; top: 8.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:69pt;height:20.25pt'"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Personal\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image017.png" title="" chromakey="white"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span><!--[endif]--></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> <span style="font-size:100%;">^x = v' t + 1/2 </span></span></span></span><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta 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mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} </style> <![endif]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";"><sup></sup></span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:omath><m:ssup><m:ssuppr><span style="'font-family:"><m:ctrlpr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:sSupPr><m:e><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>v</m:r></span></i></m:e><m:sup><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>2</m:r></span></i></m:sup></m:sSup><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>=</m:r></span></i><m:ssup><m:ssuppr><span style="'font-family:"><m:ctrlpr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:sSupPr><m:e><m:ssub><m:ssubpr><span style="'font-family:"><m:ctrlpr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:sSubPr><m:e><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>v</m:r></span></i></m:e><m:sub><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>0</m:r></span></i></m:sub></m:sSub></m:e><m:sup><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>2</m:r></span></i></m:sup></m:sSup><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>+2</m:r><m:r>a</m:r><m:r>∆</m:r><m:r>x</m:r></span></i></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; position: relative; top: 5.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:80.25pt;height:15pt'"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Personal\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image021.png" title="" chromakey="white"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span><!--[endif]--></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style="">Gerak Jatuh Bebas (GJB)<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Gerak jatuh bebas adalah variasi dari GLBB. Dalam gerak jatuh bebas (dan variasinya), lintasan tetap garis lurus, namun mengarah tegak. Gerak jatuh bebas memiliki ciri yaitu percepatannya (a) sudah memiliki nilai tetap, yaitu 9.8 m/s<sup>2</sup> atau 10 m/s<sup>2</sup>. Hal ini karena percepatannya adalah percepatan gravitasi (g). Ciri lainnya adalah percepatan awalnya (v<sub>0</sub>) tidak ada. Seluruh variabel pada GJB sama dengan GLBB, dengan catatan x diganti h (tinggi) dan a diganti g (percepatan gravitasi).</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">GJB masih memiliki variasi lagi, yaitu gerak jatuh dilempar dengan kecepatan awal (<!--[if gte msEquation 12]><m:omath><m:ssub><m:ssubpr><span style="'font-family:"><m:ctrlpr></m:ctrlPr></span></m:sSubPr><m:e><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>v</m:r></span></i></m:e><m:sub><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>0</m:r></span></i></m:sub></m:sSub><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'"><span style="'font-family:"><m:r>∄</m:r><m:r>0</m:r></span></i></m:oMath><![endif]--><!--[if !msEquation]--><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; position: relative; top: 5.5pt;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:24pt;height:15pt'"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\Personal\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image023.png" title="" chromakey="white"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span><!--[endif]--><span style=""><span style="font-size:100%;">v' bukan 0</span>) dan gerak vertikal atas (GVA). Rumus keduanya sama, namun untuk GVA percepatan gravitasi menjadi 9.8 m/s<sup>2</sup> atau 10 m/s<sup>2</sup>.</span></p> adminbelajarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05777739124848995835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-173521480956809529.post-68335406841882555812008-12-11T17:48:00.003+07:002008-12-11T18:29:00.232+07:00Stoikiometri - Hukum Dasar Kimia<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CPersonal%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><link rel="themeData" href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CPersonal%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx"><link rel="colorSchemeMapping" href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CPersonal%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> 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l0:level1 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:none; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; font-family:Symbol;} ol {margin-bottom:0in;} ul {margin-bottom:0in;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin-top:0in; mso-para-margin-right:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt; mso-para-margin-left:0in; line-height:115%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">STOIKIOMETRI</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">HUKUM DASAR KIMIA</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Pendahuluan</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Sebelum mempelajari stoikiometri dan berbagai reaksi kimia, ada beberapa hal yang harus dipahami. Terdapat beberapa hukum dan prinsip dasar yang mengendalikan seluruh reaksi kimia yang ada. Pada zaman sebelum ditemukan prinsip tersebut, manusia belum berhasil merumuskan suatu secara persis, sehingga tidak memungkinkan berbagai modifikasi modern seperti plastik dan lainnya.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-weight: bold;">Hukum dan Prinsip Kimia</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Secara umum, terdapat tiga hukum yang paling penting dan berpengaruh, dengan hukum pertama yang paling mendasar, yaitu :</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Hukum Kekekalan Massa</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Hukum Perbandingan Tetap</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Hukum Kelipatan Berganda</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-weight: bold;">Hukum Kekekalan Massa</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Hukum kekekalan massa pertama kali diajukan oleh Lomonov dan Antoine Lavoisier menemukan kembali (keduanya tidak berhubungan). Hukum ini menjelaskan bahwa semua reaksi, dalam sistem tertutup, massa zat sebelum dan sesudah reaksi adalah sama. Tidak ada yang diciptakan atau dimusnahkan. Semuanya hanyalah kombinasi baru. Lavoisier melakukan percobaan sebagai berikut. Ia memanaskan sepotong timah dalam tabung yang tertutup rapat. Abu berwarna kelabu muncul pada permukaan timah. Ia memanaskannya selama satu setengah hari sampai abu tidak muncul. Lalu, ia menimbang massa tabung tertutup berisi timah sebelum dibakar dengan tabung yang sudah dibakar (yang berisi timah oksida, sisa timah, dan udara teroksidasi). Hasilnya, ia menemukan bahwa massa sebelum dan sesudah reaksi adalah sama. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Penemuannya ini menjadi lompatan besar bagi dunia kimia karena ia yang pertama kali membuktikan keterlibatan udara dalam reaksi. Namun, dalam abad ke-20, hukum ini direvisi untuk menampung kondisi nuklir dan relativitas. Tetap hukum ini menjadi dasar bagi banyak hukum penting seperti kesetimbangan, termodinamika, dan menjadi dasar stoikiometri.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-weight: bold;">Hukum Perbandingan Tetap</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Hukum perbandingan tetap ditemukan oleh Joseph Proust, seorang ahli kimia Perancis. Hukum perbandingan tetap menyatakan, seperti namanya, perbandingan massa unsur-unsur dalam suatu senyawa adalah tertentu dan tetap. Jadi, senyawa apapun dimanapun pasti terdiri dari perbandingan massa yang pasti. Sebagai contoh, perbandingan massa natrium dan klor pada NaCl sebanyak 2 gram adalah 0.768 gram dan 1.124 gram. Maka perbandingan massanya adalah 1:1.54 atau disederhanakan 2:3. Jika diambil senyawa yang sama dari sumber yang lain sebanyak 2.5 gram dengan natrium 0.983 gram, maka ditemukan 0.983:1.517 atau 1:1.54 atau 2:3.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Hukum ini mematahkan pendapat Archimedes yang dipakai ahli kimia dari Arab sampai Eropa selama ratusan tahun, bahwa senyawa hanyalah asal campur dengan perbandingan asal. Walaupun jauh setelahnya ditemukan kesalahan yang amat kecil, hukum ini membuka jalan pengembangan reaksi senyawa pada kimia modern.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-weight: bold;">Hukum Kelipatan Berganda</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Pada saat mengajukan hukum ini, rumus kimia senyawa belum diketahui. Hukum ini diajukan John Dalton, ahli kimia Inggris sekaligus penemu teori atom modern. Hukum ini menyebutkan bahwa jika massa salah satu unsur dalam dua senyawa sama, maka perbandingan<span style=""> </span>massa unsur lainnya merupakan bilangan bulat <span style=""> </span>dan sederhana. Contohnya, perbandingan unsur karbon (C) dan oksigen (O) pada karbon monoksida dan karbon dioksida berurutan adalah 3:4 dan 3:8. Jika massa C adalah sama, maka perbandingan massa O pada karbon monoksida dan karbon dioksida adalah 4:8 atau 1:2.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Perlu dicatat, bahwa hukum ini adalah pengembangan dari hukum Proust, walaupun ditemukan sebelum hukum Proust sendiri. Hukum ini juga menyatakan bahwa atom tidak dapat berbentuk pecahan seperti setengah, harus bilangan bulat. Hukum ini kuat karena didukung teori atom.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Selain tiga yang sudah disebutkan sebelumnya, sebenarnya masih ada teori lain seperti Hipotesis Avogadro, teori atom Dalton, teori kesetimbangan, Hipotesis Hammond-Leffler, dan lainnya. Namun tiga hukum ini mendasari semuanya itu.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Sumber:</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Purba, Michael; Kimia untuk SMA Kelas X Semester 1; Jakarta:Erlangga</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Gonnick, Larry & Criddle, Craig; Kartun Kimia; Jakarta: Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia
<br /></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">www.chemistrydaily.com</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">library.thinkquest.org</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">www.nationmaster.com</p> adminbelajarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05777739124848995835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-173521480956809529.post-10507973532523054622008-12-10T19:56:00.003+07:002008-12-10T20:06:34.138+07:00Stoikiometri - Tata Nama Senyawa<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CPersonal%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><link rel="themeData" href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CPersonal%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx"><link rel="colorSchemeMapping" 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mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin-top:0in; mso-para-margin-right:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt; mso-para-margin-left:0in; line-height:115%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} table.MsoTableGrid {mso-style-name:"Table Grid"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-priority:59; mso-style-unhide:no; border:solid black 1.0pt; mso-border-themecolor:text1; mso-border-alt:solid black .5pt; mso-border-themecolor:text1; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-border-insideh:.5pt solid black; mso-border-insideh-themecolor:text1; mso-border-insidev:.5pt solid black; mso-border-insidev-themecolor:text1; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} </style> <![endif]--> <div class="Section1"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">STOIKIOMETRI</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center">Tata Nama Senyawa</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Pendahuluan<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Pada zaman dahulu, penamaan senyawa didasarkan pada berbagai hal, seperti nama tempat, nama orang, atau nama sifat tertentu dari senyawa. Namun, dengan ditemukannya semakin banyak senyawa, maka dirasa cara penamaaan yang ada selama ini tidaklah memadai, karena tidak dapat menampung semua senyawa yang ada. Karena itu, didirikanlah IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry), yaitu badan yang mengatur penamaan senyawa di dunia. Pada nantinya, akan dibedakan lagi antara senyawa organik dan non-organik.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Kation & Anion<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Sebelum mempelajari tata nama senyawa, perlu dipahami dahulu apakah kation dan anion. Kation, adalah ion yang bermuatan positif. Sementara, anion adalah ion yang bermuatan negatif. Posisinya adalah kation dahulu baru anion. Contoh : Na<sup>+</sup>(kation) + Cl</span><sup><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:12;" >-</span></sup><span style=";font-family:";" >(anion) </span><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span><span style=";font-family:";" > NaCl. Sebagai catatan, perbandingan kation dan anion selalu tetap. Contohnya, pada NaCl, berapapun massanya, selalu terdiri dari satu atom Na dan satu atom Cl (1:1).<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Ion Bermuatan <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Ion secara alami memiliki muatan sendiri. Beberapa ada yang tetap, ada yang dapat berubah (tergantung bilangan oksidasi, dipelajari di semester II kelas 10). Namun, ada yang memiliki harga pas, seperti pada unsur alkali dan alkali tanah yang selalu +1 dan +2. Beberapa ion logam, yaitu logam transisi dan logam pasca transisi (logam yang berdekatan dengan unsur non-logam). Contohnya adalah :<o:p></o:p></span></p> <table class="MsoTableGrid" style="border: medium none ; border-collapse: collapse;" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr style=""> <td style="border: 1pt solid black; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >No<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 98.65pt;color:black black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="132"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >Rumus<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 117pt;color:black black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="156"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >Nama Ion<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:black black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >No<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 88.75pt;color:black black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="118"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >Rumus<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.9pt;color:black black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="169"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >Nama Ion<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >1<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 98.65pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="132"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Na<sup>+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 117pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="156"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Natrium<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >13<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 88.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="118"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Pb<sup>2+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.9pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="169"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Plumbum/Timbal (II)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >2<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 98.65pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="132"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >K<sup>+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 117pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="156"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Kalium<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >14<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 88.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="118"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Pb<sup>4+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.9pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="169"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Plumbum/Timbal (IV)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >3<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 98.65pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="132"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Mg<sup>2+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 117pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="156"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Magnesium<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >15<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 88.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="118"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Fe<sup>2+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.9pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="169"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Ferrum/Besi (II)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >4<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 98.65pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="132"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Ca<sup>2+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 117pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="156"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Kalsium<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >16<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 88.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="118"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Fe<sup>3+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.9pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="169"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Ferrum/Besi (III)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >5<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 98.65pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="132"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Sr<sup>2+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 117pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="156"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Stronsium<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >17<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 88.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="118"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Hg<sup>+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.9pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="169"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Hidrargium/Raksa (I)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >6<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 98.65pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="132"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Ba<sup>2+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 117pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="156"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Barium<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >18<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 88.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="118"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Hg<sup>2+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.9pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="169"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Hidrargium/Raksa (II)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >7<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 98.65pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="132"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Al<sup>3+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 117pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="156"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Alumunium<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >19<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 88.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="118"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Cu<sup>+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.9pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="169"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Cupper/Tembaga (I)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >8<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 98.65pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="132"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Zn<sup>2+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 117pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="156"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Zink / Seng<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >20<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 88.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="118"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Cu<sup>2+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.9pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="169"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Cupper/Tembaga (II)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >9<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 98.65pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="132"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Ni<sup>2+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 117pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="156"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Nikel<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >21<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 88.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="118"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Au<sup>+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.9pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="169"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Aurum/Emas (I)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >10<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 98.65pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="132"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Ag<sup>2+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 117pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="156"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Argentum / Perak<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >22<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 88.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="118"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Au<sup>3+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.9pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="169"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Aurum/Emas (III)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >11<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 98.65pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="132"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Sn<sup>2+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 117pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="156"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Stanum/Timah (II)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >23<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 88.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="118"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Pt<sup>4+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.9pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="169"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Platina (IV)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >12<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 98.65pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="132"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Sn<sup>4+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 117pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="156"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Stanum/Timah (IV)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 23.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<br /></td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 88.75pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="118"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<br /></td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 126.9pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="169"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Ion Poliatom<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Ion poliatom adalah senyawa yang bermuatan yang diperlakukan sebagai satu kesatuan. Ion poliatom ada yang kation, ada pula yang anion. Berikut adalah daftar yang sering digunakan:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <table class="MsoTableGrid" style="border: medium none ; border-collapse: collapse;" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr style=""> <td colspan="2" style="border: 1pt solid black; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.45pt;" valign="top" width="37"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >No<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.2pt;color:black black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="114"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >Rumus<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 129.15pt;color:black black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="172"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >Nama Ion<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 24pt;color:black black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >No<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 74.3pt;color:black black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="99"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >Rumus<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 138.7pt;color:black black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="185"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >Nama Ion<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.45pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="37"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >1<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.2pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="114"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >NH4<sup>+</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 129.15pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="172"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Amonium<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 24pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >19<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 74.3pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="99"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >AsO<sub>3</sub><sup>3-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 138.7pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="185"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Arsenit<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.45pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="37"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >2<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.2pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="114"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >O<sup>2-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 129.15pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="172"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Oksida<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 24pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >20<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 74.3pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="99"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >AsO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 138.7pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="185"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Arsenat<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.45pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="37"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >3<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.2pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="114"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >F<sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 129.15pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="172"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Florida<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 24pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >21<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 74.3pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="99"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >SbO<sub>3</sub><sup>3-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 138.7pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="185"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Antimonit<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.45pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="37"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >4<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.2pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="114"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Cl<sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 129.15pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="172"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Klorida<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 24pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >22<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 74.3pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="99"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >SbO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 138.7pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="185"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Antimonat<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.45pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="37"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >5<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.2pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="114"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Br<sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 129.15pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="172"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Bromida<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 24pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >23<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 74.3pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="99"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >ClO<sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 138.7pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="185"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Hipoklorit<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.45pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="37"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >6<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.2pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="114"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >I<sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 129.15pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="172"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Iodida<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 24pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >24<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 74.3pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="99"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >ClO<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 138.7pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="185"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Klorit<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.45pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="37"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >7<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.2pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="114"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >CN<sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 129.15pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="172"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Sianida<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 24pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >25<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 74.3pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="99"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >ClO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 138.7pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="185"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Klorat<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.45pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="37"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >8<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.2pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="114"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >S<sup>2-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 129.15pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="172"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Sulfida<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 24pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >26<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 74.3pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="99"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >ClO<sub>4</sub><sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 138.7pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="185"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Perklorat<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.45pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="37"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >9<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.2pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="114"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 129.15pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="172"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Karbonat<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 24pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >27<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 74.3pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="99"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >MnO<sub>4</sub><sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 138.7pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="185"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Permanganat<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.45pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="37"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >10<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.2pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="114"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >SiO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 129.15pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="172"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Silikat<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 24pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >28<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 74.3pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="99"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >MnO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 138.7pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="185"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Manganat<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.45pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="37"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >11<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.2pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="114"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 129.15pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="172"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Oksalat<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 24pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >29<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 74.3pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="99"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >CrO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 138.7pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="185"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Kromat<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.45pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext black black;" valign="top" width="37"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >12<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.2pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="114"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >CH<sub>3</sub>COO/C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 129.15pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="172"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Asetat<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 24pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >30<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 74.3pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="99"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub><sup>2-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 138.7pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="185"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Dikromat<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="height: 13.25pt;"> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.45pt; height: 13.25pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext;" valign="top" width="37"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >13<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.2pt; height: 13.25pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="114"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >SO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 129.15pt; height: 13.25pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="172"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Sulfit<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 24pt; height: 13.25pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >31<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 74.3pt; height: 13.25pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="99"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >OH<sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 138.7pt; height: 13.25pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="185"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Hidroksida<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="height: 11pt;"> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.45pt; height: 11pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext;" valign="top" width="37"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >14<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.2pt; height: 11pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="114"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 129.15pt; height: 11pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="172"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Sulfat<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 24pt; height: 11pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >32<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 74.3pt; height: 11pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="99"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >HSO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 138.7pt; height: 11pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="185"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Bisulfit<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="height: 15.2pt;"> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.45pt; height: 15.2pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext;" valign="top" width="37"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >15<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.2pt; height: 15.2pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="114"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >NO<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 129.15pt; height: 15.2pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="172"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Nitrit<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 24pt; height: 15.2pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >33<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 74.3pt; height: 15.2pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="99"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >HPO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 138.7pt; height: 15.2pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="185"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Hidrogen Fosfat<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="height: 7.25pt;"> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.15pt; height: 7.25pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext;" valign="top" width="36"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >16<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.2pt; height: 7.25pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="114"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >NO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 129.45pt; height: 7.25pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="173"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Nitrat<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 24pt; height: 7.25pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >34<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 74.65pt; height: 7.25pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="100"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >H<sub>2</sub>PO<sub>4</sub><sup>-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 138.35pt; height: 7.25pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="184"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Dihidrogen Fosfat<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="height: 11.25pt;"> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.15pt; height: 11.25pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext;" valign="top" width="36"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >17<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.2pt; height: 11.25pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="114"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >PO<sub>3</sub><sup>3-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 129.45pt; height: 11.25pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="173"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Fosfit<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 24pt; height: 11.25pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >35<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 74.65pt; height: 11.25pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="100"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >BO<sub>3</sub><sup>3-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 138.35pt; height: 11.25pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="184"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Borat<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="height: 8.6pt;"> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 27.15pt; height: 8.6pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext;" valign="top" width="36"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><span style=";font-family:";" >18<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 85.2pt; height: 8.6pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="114"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-</sup><o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 129.45pt; height: 8.6pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="173"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Fosfat<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 24pt; height: 8.6pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="32"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<br /></td> <td colspan="2" style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 74.65pt; height: 8.6pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="100"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<br /></td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 138.35pt; height: 8.6pt;color:-moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="184"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
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<br /></td> </tr> <!--[endif]--> </tbody></table> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Penamaan Senyawa Anorganik <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Penamaan senyawa anorganik, terbagi menjadi empat bagian yang berbeda, yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=";font-family:";" >Senyawa kovalen biner<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">2.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=";font-family:";" >Senyawa ion<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">3.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=";font-family:";" >Asam<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">4.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=";font-family:";" >Basa<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Senyawa Kovalen Biner<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Senyawa kovalen biner adalah senyawa yang terdiri dari dua jenis unsur non logam. Urutan penulisan dilihat dari susunan berikut: <span style=""> </span>B – Si – C – Sb – As – P – N – H – S – I – Br – Cl – O – F<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Penamaan senyawa biner adalah dengan merangkai kedua jenis unsur sesuai dengan urutan di atas. Lalu, pada ujung anion ditambahkan –ida. Contoh :<span style=""> </span>HCl (Hidrogen klorida). <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Apabila terdapat lebih dari sejenis senyawa, maka ditambahkan awalan menurut indeks (angka kecil di bagian bawah yang ada dalam penulisan unsur, seperti 2 pada H<sub>2</sub>) dalam bahasa Yunani. Sebagai catatan, awalan mono tidak dipakai kecuali pada anion. Perlu diingat bahwa indeks ada karena terjadi perbedaan muatan, namun muatan senyawa harus bernilai nol. Contohnya, C bernilai +4 dan O bernilai -2, maka agar total menjadi nol, atom O harus ada 2. Jadi, rumusnya adalah CO<sub>2 </sub>(untuk muatan, lihat pada tabel kation dan anion di atas). Hal ini berlaku untuk semua jenis senyawa.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <table class="MsoTableGrid" style="border: medium none ; width: 490.8pt; border-collapse: collapse;" width="654" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr style="height: 12.1pt;"> <td style="border: 1pt solid black; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 12.1pt;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >1<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 12.1pt;color:black black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Mono<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 12.1pt;color:black black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >6<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 12.1pt;color:black black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Heksa<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="height: 12.1pt;"> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 12.1pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >2<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 12.1pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Di<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 12.1pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >7<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 12.1pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Hepta<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="height: 12.1pt;"> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 12.1pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >3<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 12.1pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Tri<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 12.1pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >8<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 12.1pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Okta<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="height: 12.1pt;"> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 12.1pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >4<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 12.1pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Tetra<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 12.1pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >9<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 12.1pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Nona<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="height: 2.85pt;"> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 2.85pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >5<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 2.85pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Penta<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 2.85pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >10<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 122.7pt; height: 2.85pt;color:-moz-use-text-color black black -moz-use-text-color;" valign="top" width="164"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Deka<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:";" >Contoh:<o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> <span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:11;" >
<br /></span> <div class="Section2"> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=";font-family:";" >CO : Karbon monoksida<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=";font-family:";" >CO<sub>2 </sub>: Karbon dioksida<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=";font-family:";" >NO : Nitrogen monoksida<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=";font-family:";" >NO<sub>2</sub> : Nitrogen dioksida<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=";font-family:";" >CCl<sub>4</sub> : Karbon tetraklorida<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=";font-family:";" >N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> : Dinitrogen Pentaoksida
<br /><!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]-->
<br /><!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> <span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:11;" >
<br /></span> <div class="Section3"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Senyawa Ion<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Senyawa ion adalah perpaduan antara logam dengan non logam. Penggabungan ini berciri utama tidak menyebutkan indeks. Selain itu, logam selalu menjadi kation, tidak pernah anion. Anion dapat berupa atom tunggal atau ion poliatom. Nama kation disebutkan lebih dulu, baru anion. Contohnya:<o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> <span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:11;" >
<br /></span> <div class="Section4"> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=";font-family:";" >NaNO<sub>3</sub> : Natrium nitrat<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=";font-family:";" >Al<sub>2</sub>(SO4)<sub>3</sub> : Alumunium sulfat<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=";font-family:";" >CuS : Tembaga (II) sulfida<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=";font-family:";" >FeCl<sub>2</sub> : Besi (II) klorida/Ferrum (II) klorida<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=";font-family:";" >Fe<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub> : Besi (III) sulfida<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 22.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=";font-family:";" >SnO<sub>2</sub> : Timah (IV) oksida<o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> <span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:11;" >
<br /></span> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Senyawa Asam<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Senyawa asam memiliki ciri khusus, yaitu kationnya adalah H<sup>+</sup>. Anionnya adalah non logam atau ion poliatom. Anion disebut sebagai sisa asam. Indeks tidak disebutkan. Cara penyebutannya adalah dengan kata Asam lalu dilanjutkan dengan nama anion tanpa indeks. Sebagai catatan, asam yang tidak mengandung unsur oksigen dapat ditambahkan kata awalan hidro pada anionnya sebagai alternatif. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Contohnya, HCN disebut asam sianida, HNO<sub>2</sub> disebut asam nitrit, dan seterusnya. Pengecualian ada pada asam asetat, yang dapat juga ditulis CH<sub>3</sub>COOH. Selain itu, asam lambung (HCl) dapat juga ditulis dengan nama hidroklorida. Perlu diingat, walau indeks tidak disebutkan, pastikan muatan senyawa adalah nol.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Senyawa Basa<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Senyawa basa memiliki ciri yaitu bahwa anionnya pastilah (OH)<sup>-</sup>. Senyawa ini tidak menyebutkan indeks juga. Umumnya, kation berupa logam. Penamaannya, dengan menyebutkan nama kation lalu ditambahkan <span style=""> </span>hidroksida. Contohnya, Fe(OH)<sub>2</sub> disebut Besi (II) hidroksida, KOH disebut kalium hidroksida, dan seterusnya.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Terakhir, semua nama senyawa tersebut, terutama asam dan basa dapat disebutkan dengan nama biasa atau nama dagangnya, seperti H(OH) atau H<sub>2</sub>O bukan disebut asam hidroksida atau dihidrogen monoksida, namun disebut air. HCl dapat disebut juga getah lambung dan seterusnya.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Tata Nama Senyawa Organik<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Tata nama senyawa organik memiliki cara tersendiri, adalah senyawa karbon yang memiliki sifat tersendiri. Senyawa organik, awalnya dianggap hanya ada dari alam, walau ternyata dapat pula dibuat di laboratorium. Cara penamaan senyawa organik akan dibahas pada bab Hidrokarbon (kelas 10 semester II). Nama yang akan digunakan adalah nama trivial/nama dagang/nama biasa, seperti glukosa (C6H12O6), etanol/alcohol (CH3CH2OH), formaldehida (HCHO), sukrosa (H12C22O11), dan lainnya.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Sumber :<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >Purba, Michael; Kimia Untuk Kelas X Semester I; Jakarta: Erlangga<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >www.chemtutor.com<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >www.miracosta.cc.ca.us<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >www.chem.qmul.co.uk<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-family:";" >www.learnchem.net</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p></o:p></span></p> adminbelajarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05777739124848995835noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-173521480956809529.post-30769596833701810652008-12-10T13:20:00.002+07:002008-12-10T20:17:08.629+07:00Monera<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CPersonal%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><link rel="Edit-Time-Data" href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CPersonal%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso"><!--[if !mso]> <style> v\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} o\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} w\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} .shape {behavior:url(#default#VML);} </style> <![endif]--><link rel="themeData" 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mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:shapedefaults ext="edit" spidmax="1062"> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:shapelayout ext="edit"> <o:idmap ext="edit" data="1"> <o:rules ext="edit"> <o:r id="V:Rule1" type="connector" idref="#_x0000_s1059"> <o:r id="V:Rule2" type="connector" idref="#_x0000_s1058"> <o:r id="V:Rule3" type="connector" idref="#_x0000_s1053"> <o:r id="V:Rule4" type="connector" idref="#_x0000_s1049"> <o:r id="V:Rule5" type="connector" idref="#_x0000_s1044"> <o:r id="V:Rule6" type="connector" idref="#_x0000_s1051"> <o:r id="V:Rule7" type="connector" idref="#_x0000_s1050"> <o:r id="V:Rule8" type="connector" idref="#_x0000_s1055"> <o:r id="V:Rule9" type="connector" idref="#_x0000_s1045"> <o:r id="V:Rule10" type="connector" idref="#_x0000_s1026"> <o:r id="V:Rule11" type="connector" idref="#_x0000_s1047"> <o:r id="V:Rule12" type="connector" idref="#_x0000_s1054"> <o:r id="V:Rule13" type="connector" idref="#_x0000_s1056"> <o:r id="V:Rule14" type="connector" idref="#_x0000_s1057"> <o:r id="V:Rule15" type="connector" idref="#_x0000_s1046"> <o:r id="V:Rule16" type="connector" idref="#_x0000_s1048"> <o:r id="V:Rule17" type="connector" idref="#_x0000_s1052"> </o:rules> </o:shapelayout></xml><![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:12;" >BIOLOGI<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:12;" >MONERA<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:12;" ><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1026" type="#_x0000_t32" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;" connectortype="straight"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style=""> <table style="width: 7px; height: 22px;" align="left" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody> <tr> <td>
<br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </span><!--[endif]--><span style="line-height: 115%;font-family:";font-size:12;" ><o:p> </o:p></span>Ciri-ciri Umum</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Monera adalah kingdom yang mencakup semua mikroorganisme yang terdiri dari satu sel (uniseluler) dan intinya tidak diselubungi membran inti (prokariotik).</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Archaebacteria (Arkhaios : zaman purba)</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Archaebacteria adalah contoh dari bakteri zaman purba yang masih ada sampai sekarang. Archaebacteria, pada sistem lima kingdom, termasuk dalam kingdom monera. Namun, pada sistem enam kingdom, archaebacteria memiliki kingdom sendiri.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Archaebacteria memiliki beberapa perbedaan dengan bakteri biasa, yaitu:</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Membran sel keduanya terdiri dari jenis lipid yang sangat berbeda</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Dinding sel bakteri tersusun dari peptidoglikan, sementara archaebacteria dindingnya tersusun dari bahan yang berbeda</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">3.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Bakteri memiliki protein ribosom dan RNA polymerase yang berbeda dari organisme eukariotik, sementara yang dimiliki archebacteria sama</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">4.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Gen bakteri tidak memiliki intron (bagian gen yang bukan untuk pengkodean), sedangkan beberapa gen archaebacteria memilikinya</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Archaebacteria dapat dibagi menjadi tiga atau empat kelompok utama. Berikut yang tiga pertama adalah yang terpenting:</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Metanogen</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Kelompok Metanogen adalah kelompok yang mereduksi CO2 menggunakan H2 menjadi gas metana (CH4) dalam metabolisme energinya. Contohnya adalah jenis Methanopyrus. Metanogen memiliki cirri anaerop, hidup di lumpur/rawa, dan bersifat saprofit. Metanogen bersifat saprofit apabila ia hidup di dalam perut hewan sehingga menghasilkan enzim selulosa yang merombak CO2 menjadi CH4 atau disebut juga biogas.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Halofil Ekstrem</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Halofi ekstrem adalah jenis archaebacteria yang hidup pada kadar garam (salinitas) yang tinggi. Beberapa diantaranya dapat bertoleransi, namun beberapa tidak dapat hidup jika dibawah 10 kali keasinan air laut. Koloni halofil ekstrem membentuk buih berwarna merah ungu yang dihasilkan oleh bakteriorodopsin, yaitu pigmen penangkap energy cahaya yang terdapat pada membran sel. </p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">3.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Termofil Ekstrem</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Kelompok termofil ekstrem hidup pada lingkungan yang panas, dengan suhu antara 60oC sampai 80oC. Jenis kelompok ini salah satunya Sulfobulus acidocaldarius, yang mengoksidasi sulfur dan digunakan untuk memisahkan tembaga dan besi dari bijih besi.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">4.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Psikropil Ekstrem</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify;">Kelompok jenis ini hidup pada temperatur yang amat dingin.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Bacteria (Bacterion: batang kecil)</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Ciri-ciri Bakteri:</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Terdiri dari satu sel (uniseluler) dan tidak memiliki membran inti (prokariotik)</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Ukurannya sangat kecil ( 1-6 mikron)</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">3.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Hidupnya ada yang sendiri (soliter) atau berkelompok (koloni)</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">4.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Dapat bersifat simbiosis, parasitik, atau saprofit (mengambil dari sisa makhluk hidup)</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">5.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Umumnya tidak berklorofil</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">6.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Berkembang biak vegetatif dengan pembelahan biner</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">7.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Reproduksi generatif dengan konjugasi, transformasi, dan transduksi (lihat peta konsep)</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">8.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Hidupnya berada di berbagai lingkungan dan kondisi (kosmopolitan)</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Struktur Sel Bakteri</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Kapsul</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Kapsul adalah lapisan lendir yang melapisi dinding sel. Kapsul, yang umumnya berada pada bakteri beracun (patogen) berguna untuk melindungi bakteri dari sistem perlindungan (antibodi) inangnya. Jika bergelatin, kapsul juga berfungsi sebagai pengikat sel-sel bakteri untuk berkoloni.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Dinding Sel</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Dinding sel adalah lapisan yang melindungi sel dan memberi bentuk tubuh pada sel. Dinding sel terdiri dari peptidoglikan, yaitu bahan yang terdiri dari polisakarida (gula, C6H1206) dan protein. Tebal dan tipisnya bakteri dapat diketahui dengan teknik pewarnaan Gram yang ditemukan oleh Christian Gram, ahli bakteri Denmark. Jika hasilnya Gram-positif, maka jika diamati, yang menjaga warna dari pewarna. Sedangkan, jika gram negatif, maka tidak dapat diwarnai oleh pewarna. Hal itu menunjukkan bahwa yang gram positif berdinding lebih tebal dan lebih sederhana, berkebalikan dengan gram negatif. Kebanyakan bakteri berbahaya menunjukkan hasil gram negatif.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">3.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Flagela</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Flagella berfungsi sebagai alat gerak bakteri. Karena geraknya yang berkontraksi ke kanan kiri, maka ia disebut bulu cambuk. Berdasarkan letak dan jumlahnya:</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">a.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Monotrik, satu flagel di satu ujung bakteri</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">b.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Lopotrik, banyak flagel di salah satu ujung</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">c.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Amfitrik, satu flagel pada kedua ujung</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">d.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Peritrik, flagel berada di seluruh tubuh</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">e.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Atrik, tidak berflagel</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">4.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Membran plasma</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Membran plasma merupakan selaput tipis yang terdiri dari lipoprotein (lemak + protein). Lapisan yang fleksibel ini bersifat selektif permeabel, yaitu dapat ditembus secara terkontrol. Bagian ini berfungsi untuk menyaring apa yang keluar masuk dari bakteri (transportasi ekstraseluler).</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">5.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Mesosom</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Mesosom adalah organ yang dapat dibandingkan dengan retikulum endoplasma pada sel eukariotik atau mitokondria pada sel umumnya. Organ ini berguna dalam pembentukan energy bakteri, pembentukan dinding sel baru, dan transportasi dalam sel (intraseluler)</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">6.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Sitoplasama</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Sitoplasma adalah cairan yang terdapat di dalam sel. Sitoplasma yang berfungsi sebagai tempat organel sel tersebut, berbeda dengan sitoplasma umumnya. Organel yang ada hanyalah ribosom bebas dan DNA atau RNA.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">7.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Ribosom</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Ribosom tersusun atas protein dan RNA. Ribosom berguna untuk sintesis protein yang diperlukan dalam metabolisme sel.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">8.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Pilus/Fimbria/Pili</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Pilus/pili/fimbria adalah benang-benang halus yang keluar dari dinding sel dan berfungsi sebagai alat perlekatan dengan bakteri lain. Untuk reproduksi, pilus juga berguna sebagai saluran penghubung koinjugasi.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">9.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Plasmid</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Bakteri tidak memiliki inti sejati, tapi meimiliki bagian yang mirip inti disebut nukleoid. Plasmid ini berbentuk bulat dan membawa materi genetik yang dapat dipindahkan.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">10.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Endospora</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Endospora adalah spora adalah spora yang dihasilkan di dalam bakteri. Endospora berdinding tebal, berguna untuk melindungi bakteri saat kondisi lingkungan tidak nyaman. Endospora tahan sampai suhu 120oC, maka ia tidak mati dengan proses memasak biasa.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">11.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->DNA</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) atau asam deoksiribonukleat adalah materi genetik (pembawa sifat) yang ada pada inti.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">12.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Lembar/membran fotosintetik </p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Pada makhluk prokariotik, lembar ini disebut kromatofon. Lembar fotosintetik berbentuk lipatan membran ke arah sitoplasma. Lembaran ini fungsinya mirip kloroplas, yaitu untuk melakukan fotosintesis. Bakteri yang tidak berfotosintesis tidak memiliki lembaran ini.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">13.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Region nukleoid</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify;">Bakteri tidak memiliki inti sejati, namun memiliki daerah yang seperti inti. Daerah ini berfungsi mengendalikan kegiatan dan reproduksi bakteri.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Bentuk Bakteri</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Kokus, bulatan</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">a.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Monococcus, satu bulatan sendiri. Contoh : <i style="">Monococcus gonorrheae</i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">b.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Diplococcus, dua bulatan berangkai. Contoh : <i style="">Diplococcus pnemoniae</i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">c.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Streptococcus, rangkaian panjang bulatan. Contoh : <i style="">Streptococcys pyogenes</i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">d.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Staphylococcus, kumpulan bulatan seperti buah anggur. Contoh : <i style="">Staphylococcus aureus</i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">e.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Sarcina, delapan kokus yang membentuk kubus. Contoh : <i style="">Sarcina lutea</i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Basilus, batangan</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style=""><span style="">a.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]-->Monobasilus, satu batang sendiri. Contoh : <i style="">Salmonella typhosa</i> & <i style="">Escherichia coli<o:p></o:p></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">b.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Diplobasilus, dua batang berangkai. Contoh : <i style="">Azotobacter</i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">c.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Streptobasilus, rangkaian panjang bulatan. Contoh : <i style="">Bacillus antrachis</i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">3.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Spirilum, melingkar</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">a.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Spirilum, spiral dan kaku. Contoh : <i style="">Spirillum sp.</i> & <i style="">Treponema pallidium</i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">b.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Spirochete, spiral dan lentur. Contoh : <i style="">Sphiroceta palida</i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">c.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Koma, seperti tanda koma. Contoh : <i style="">Vibrio cholerae</i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Cara Bakteri Mendapat Makanan</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Heterotrof (Hetero=lain, trophein=makanan)</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Bakteri heterotrof adalah bakteri yang sumber makanannya bergantung pada bahan organik yang sudah ada. Hal ini terjadi karena bakteri tidak mampu membuat makanannya sendiri.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">a.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Saprofit (saprobe=sampah)</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify;">Saprofit, seperti namanya, menguraikan sampah yang berupa sisa-sisa bahan organik menjadi bahan anorganik. Bakteri ini dapat ditemukan pada bangkai dan kotoran. Contohnya adalh Escherichia coli.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">b.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Parasit</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-align: justify;">Bakteri parasit adalah bakteri yang mengambil bahan organik dari inang (makhluk hidup yang ditempeli). Inang tersebut dapat berupa heterotrof lainnya seperti manusia atau hewan. Bakteri ini banyak yang bersifat patogen (beracun/menyebabkan penyakit). Contohnya adalah Clostridium tetani, Mycobacterium tubercolosis, dan lainnya.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Autotrof (Auto =sendiri, trophein=makanan)</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Autotrof adalah jenis makhluk hidup yang dapat membuat zat organik sendiri sebagai makanannya. Berdasarkan caranya, dapat dibedakan menjadi:</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">a.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Fotosintetik/fotoautotrof</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;">Bakteri fotoautotrof adalah bakteri yang membuat makanannya dengan menggunakan energy cahaya (fotosintesis). Bakteri ini memiliki pigmen penangkap cahaya (bakteriopurpurin) yang berbeda. Contohnya, pada bakteri hijau disebut bakterioklorofil, di bakteri ungu disebut bakterioviridin, dan lainnya.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">b.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Khemosintetik/kemoautotrof</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;">Bakteri kemoautotrof<span style=""> </span>membuat makanannya menggunakan zat anorganik dari oksidasi senyawa kimia yang ada. Contohnya, bakteri belerang, bakteri besi, dan bakteri nitrit.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Kebutuhan Oksigen Bakteri</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Bakteri aerob</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t202" coordsize="21600,21600" spt="202" path="m,l,21600r21600,l21600,xe"> <v:stroke joinstyle="miter"> <v:path gradientshapeok="t" connecttype="rect"> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x0000_s1060" type="#_x0000_t202" style="'position:absolute;" stroked="f"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251693056; left: 0px; margin-left: 155px; margin-top: 55px; width: 80px; height: 25px;"> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td style="background: white none repeat scroll 0% 0%; vertical-align: top; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;color:white;" width="80" bg height="25"><!--[endif]--><!--[if !mso]--><span style="position: absolute; left: 0pt; z-index: 251693056;"> <table width="100%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td><!--[endif]--> <div shape="_x0000_s1060" style="padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;" class="shape"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-size:8;" >Bakteri nitrit<o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> <!--[if !mso]--></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </span><!--[endif]--><!--[if !mso & !vml]--> <!--[endif]--><!--[if !vml]--></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </span><!--[endif]-->Bakteri aerob adalah bakteri yang membutuhkan oksigen dalam proses respirasinya. Tanpa oksigen, bakteri ini tak bisa hidup. Contohnya adalah bakteri nitrit dan bakteri nitrat. Berikut proses energinya:</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1058" type="#_x0000_t32" style="'position:absolute;left:0;" connectortype="straight"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251691008; left: 0px; margin-left: 132px; margin-top: 2px; width: 125px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/Personal/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image003.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1058" width="125" height="12" /></span><!--[endif]-->2NH<span style="line-height: 115%;font-size:7;" >3</span> + 3O<span style="line-height: 115%;font-size:7;" >2</span><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>2HNO<span style="line-height: 115%;font-size:7;" >2</span> + 2H<span style="line-height: 115%;font-size:7;" >2</span>O + Energi</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1061" type="#_x0000_t202" style="'position:absolute;left:0;" stroked="f"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251694080; left: 0px; margin-left: 155px; margin-top: 1px; width: 86px; height: 25px;"> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td style="background: white none repeat scroll 0% 0%; vertical-align: top; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;color:white;" width="86" bg height="25"><!--[endif]--><!--[if !mso]--><span style="position: absolute; left: 0pt; z-index: 251694080;"> <table style="top: 0px; left: 0px; width: 298px; height: 48px;" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr> <td><!--[endif]--> <div shape="_x0000_s1061" style="padding: 3.6pt 7.2pt;" class="shape"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-size:8;" ><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family: lucida grande;">Bakteri nitrat</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> <!--[if !mso]--></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </span><!--[endif]--><!--[if !mso & !vml]--> <!--[endif]--><!--[if !vml]--></td> </tr> </tbody></table> </span><!--[endif]--><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1059" type="#_x0000_t32" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:99.75pt;" connectortype="straight"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><span style="position: absolute; z-index: 251692032; left: 0px; margin-left: 132px; margin-top: 3px; width: 125px; height: 12px;"><img src="file:///C:/Users/Personal/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.gif" shapes="_x0000_s1059" width="125" height="12" /></span><!--[endif]-->2HNO<span style="line-height: 115%;font-size:7;" >2</span> + O<span style="line-height: 115%;font-size:7;" >2</span> <span style=""> </span>2HNO<span style="line-height: 115%;font-size:8;" >3</span> + Energi</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Bakteri anaerob</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify;">Bakteri anaerob adalah kebalikan bakteri aerob, yaitu tidak memerlukan oksigen. Jika ada oksigen, bakteri ini mati. Contohnya adalah bakteri denitrifikasi, <i style="">Clostridium tetani</i>, dan <i style="">Lactobacillus bulgaricus</i>.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Reproduksi Bakteri</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Vegetatif (aseksual)</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Untuk reproduksi vegetatif, bakteri menggunakan cara pembelahan biner. Pembelahan biner adalah pembelahan langsung yang diawali dari pemanjangan sel lalu berubah menjadi dua bagian yang persis sama. Jumlah pembelahan berlangsung dalam kelipatan, seperti dua, empat, delapan, enam belas, dan seterusnya.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Generatif (seksual)</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Perkembangbiakan generatif bakteri sering disebut paraseksual, karena reproduksinya melalui pili yang menjadi perantara. Reproduksi seksual bakteri terdiri dari tiga cara, yaitu:</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">a.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Konjugasi</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;">Konjugasi adalah berpindahnya materi genetik (DNA) satu sel ke sel lain. Perpindahan pada bakteri dilakukan melalui pili. Nantinya, akan terjadi rekombinasi gen karena penggabungan DNA. Setelah konjugasi, bakteri melakukan pembelahan biner kembali.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">b.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Transformasi</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;">Transformasi terjadi saat bakteri mengalami lisis alami. Nantinya, bakteri yang mengalami lisis (donor) plasmidnya akan masuk ke bakteri lain. Saat itu akan terjadi penggabungan dan susunan genetiknya akan berubah. Hal ini disebut transformasi.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">c.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Transduksi</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;">Transduksi menggunakan bakteriofage dari virus yang akan memasuki bakteri. Prosesnya dapat disamakan dengan lisogenik (lihat bagian virus).</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Ganggang Hijau-Biru (Cyanophyta/Cyanobacteria)</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Ganggang hijau-biru (cyanophyta) adalah salah satu monera yang menarik untuk dipelajari. Ganggang ini merupakan vegetasi perintis (tumbuhan yang ada sebelum tumbuhan lain ada). Cirinya adalah:</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Kebanyakan uniseluler, namun sebagian multiseluler</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Dapat berbentuk benang atau koloni</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">3.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Prokariotik </p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">4.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Dinding sel terdiri dari selulosa dan pectin</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">5.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Hidup di tempat sampah di air tawar yang cukup mendapat sinar matahari</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style=""><span style="">6.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]-->Memiliki klorofil dan pigmen fikobilin yang membuatnya berwarna <i style="">cyan. </i>Walaupun begitu, aslinya Cyanophyta memiliki 4 pigmen, yaitu ditambah karoten, fikosianin dan fikoeritrin. Fikobilin adalah gabungan khusus yang terdiri dari fikosianin dan fikoeritrin.<i style=""><o:p></o:p></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Struktur Cyanophyta</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Dinding Sel</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Dinding sel adalah pelindung Cyanobacteria, sama seperti sel lainnya. DInding sel terdiri dari selulosa, hemiselulosa, dan pektin. Di luar dinding sel terdapat lendir yang berfungsi mencegah sel dari kekeringan dan membantu bergerak.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Membran Sel</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Membran sel berguna sebagai pengatur keluar masuknya zat dari dalam sel. Secara umum sama dengan milik bakteri. Namun, terdapat lipatan ke dalam yang disebut membran tilakoid atau lamela fotosintetik. Membran ini mengandung klorofil, pengganti kloroplas pada sel biasa.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">3.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Sitoplasma</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify;">Sitoplasma adalah sistem koloid yang terdiri dari karbohidrat, protein, lemak, ribosom, mesosom, dan materi genetik (DNA). Secara umum, isinya sama dengan yang ada di sel biasa.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Reproduksi Cyanophyta</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Reproduksi pada Cyanobacteria dilakukan secara vegetatif saja, yaitu dengan:</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Pembelahan Biner</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Pembelahan biner seperti pada bakteri. Umumnya terjadi pada Cyanophyta uniseluler. Hasil pembelahan akan menjadi sel tunggal, lalu dapat membuat koloni baru. Contohnya adalah Gleocapsa sp.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Fragmentasi</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Fragmentasi umumnya terjadi pada Cyanophyta berbentuk benang. Fragmentasi terjadi saat benang ganggang terputus yang disebut hormogonium. Potongan benang itu dapat tumbuh menjadi benang baru. Contohnya adalah Oscollatoria sp. Selain itu, pada bagian atas terdapat sel kosong yang disebut heterosista. Heterosista digunakan untuk mengikat nitrogen dari udara. Contohnhya Nostoc commune dan Anabaena sp. </p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Pembentukan Endospora </p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify;">Beberapa diantara Cyanophyta dapat membentuk spora. Sel yang membentuk endospora disebut akinet. Akinet dapat tumbuh menjadi sel baru. Contohnya Nostoc commune.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Anggota Ganggang Hijau-Biru</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Bersel satu</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">a.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Chroococcus, hidup di dasar kolam, pada cadas, atau pada tembok basah</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">b.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Gloeocapsa, hidup menempel (epifit) pada tumbuhan atau batu-batuan</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Berkoloni</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">Polycystis berbentuk koloni yang bulat menyerupai bola atau agak tidak teratur</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family:Symbol;"><span style="">·<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Berbentuk benang (filamen)</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">a.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Nostoc</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;">Berbentuk koloni benang yang terdiri dari sel-sel bulat yang berlendir. Mirip seperti untaian kalung. Dapat mengikat nitrogen</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">b.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Oscillatoria</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;">Benang tebal yang<span style=""> </span>dan tersusun dari sel berbentuk cawan. Ditemukan pada kolam dan danau. Apabila satu sel mati, maka sel di sampingnya akan menonjol dan membentuk sel konkaf. Apabila ada guncangan, sel konkaf ini putus.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">c.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Anabaena</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;">Hampir menyerupai Nostoc. Namun, Anabaena hidup bersimbiosis pada akar tanaman, walau beberapa hidup di air tawar. Memiliki heterosista, jadi dapat mengikat nitrogen bebas.</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=""><span style="">d.<span style=";font-family:";font-size:7;" > </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Rivularia</p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify;">Heterosistanya jauh lebih tebal daripada ujung lainnya yang setebal rambut sehingga dikatakan mirip cambuk. Heterokistanya dipakai sebagai alat reproduksi.</p> adminbelajarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05777739124848995835noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-173521480956809529.post-67102953145186188502008-12-07T11:41:00.000+07:002008-12-08T11:40:57.136+07:00Jamur (Fungi)<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CPersonal%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><link rel="Edit-Time-Data" href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CPersonal%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso"><!--[if !mso]> <style> v\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} o\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} w\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} .shape {behavior:url(#default#VML);} </style> <![endif]--><link rel="themeData" 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</o:shapelayout></xml><![endif]--> <div class="Section1"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Garamond","serif";">BIOLOGI <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Jamur (Fungi)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Peta Konsep<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:roundrect id="_x0000_s1026" style="'position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;" arcsize="10923f"> <v:textbox> <![if !mso]> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <tr> <td><![endif]> <div> <p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style="'text-align:center'"><span style="'font-size:12.0pt;line-height:115%'">Jamur (Fungi) <o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> <![if !mso]></td> </tr> </table> <![endif]></v:textbox> </v:roundrect><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t32" coordsize="21600,21600" spt="32" oned="t" path="m,l21600,21600e" filled="f"> <v:path arrowok="t" fillok="f" connecttype="none"> <o:lock ext="edit" shapetype="t"> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x0000_s1027" type="#_x0000_t32" style="'position:absolute;" connectortype="straight"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:shape><v:shape id="_x0000_s1028" type="#_x0000_t32" style="'position:absolute;" connectortype="straight"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"> </v:shape><v:roundrect id="_x0000_s1029" style="'position:absolute;left:0;" arcsize="10923f"> <v:textbox> <![if !mso]> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <tr> <td><![endif]> <div> <p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style="'text-align:center'">Ciri-ciri Umum</p> </div> <![if !mso]></td> </tr> </table> 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!mso]></td> </tr> </table> <![endif]></v:textbox> </v:roundrect><v:roundrect id="_x0000_s1040" style="'position:absolute;left:0;" arcsize="10923f"> <v:textbox> <![if !mso]> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <tr> <td><![endif]> <div> <p class="MsoNormal"><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'">Basidiomycota<o:p></o:p></i></p> </div> <![if !mso]></td> </tr> </table> <![endif]></v:textbox> </v:roundrect><v:roundrect id="_x0000_s1041" style="'position:absolute;left:0;" arcsize="10923f"> <v:textbox> <![if !mso]> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <tr> <td><![endif]> <div> <p class="MsoNormal"><i style="'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'">Deuterimycota<o:p></o:p></i></p> </div> <![if !mso]></td> </tr> </table> <![endif]></v:textbox> </v:roundrect><v:roundrect id="_x0000_s1042" style="'position:absolute;left:0;" arcsize="10923f"> <v:textbox> <![if !mso]> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%"> <tr> <td><![endif]> <div> <p 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"Garamond","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<br /> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Ciri-ciri Umum<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Jamur atau fungi pada umumnya memiliki ciri sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> <span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Garamond","serif";">
<br /> </span> <div class="Section2"> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Eukariotik (memiliki membran sel inti/ karioteka)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Tidak berklorofil, sehingga tidak dapat membuat makanan sendiri (heterotrof)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Ada yang uniseluler (terdiri dari 1 sel saja)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Ada yang uniseluler dan multiseluler. Yang multiseluler (bersel banyak) tubuhnya tersusun atas hifa (benang halus)<span style=""> </span>dan menjalin menjadi miselium (kumpulan hifa) yang berfungsi menyerap makanan<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Hifa ada yang bersekat dan tidak bersekat. Pada yang bersekat, ada yang berinti satu dan berinti banyak. Pada yang tidak bersekat, apabila berinti banyak, disebut senositik<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Dinding selnya terdiri dari zat kitin<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Jamur uniseluler berkembang biak dengan spora aseksual. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Jamur multiseluler berkembang biak dengan zoospora, endospora, klamidiospora, fragementasi, tunas, dan konidia (aseksual). Secara seksual dengan konjugasi dan menghasilkan spora generatif.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">9.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Hidup pada tempat lembab, mengandung zat organik, sedikit asam, dan kurang cahaya matahari<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">10.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Pencernaan berlangsung diluar tubuh dengan enzim untuk menyederhanakan makanan sebelum diserap jamur<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">11.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Struktur umum jamur terdiri dari hifa yang tumbuh ke atas (sporangiofor) yang dapat membentuk tubuh buah dan terdapat kotak spora (sporangium) yang berisi spora perkembangbiakan. Hifa yang mendatar disebut stolon<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> </div> <span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Garamond","serif";">
<br /> </span> <div class="Section3"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Klasifikasi Jamur<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Jamur, menurut cara reproduksi dan bentuk tubuhnya, terdiri dari 5 divisi, namun yang biasa dipakai adalah 4 jenis saja. Berikut adalah jenisnya:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Zygomycota<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Zygomycota adalah jamur yang disebut demikian karena reproduksinya menghasilkan zigot. Cirinya adalah sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Hifanya tidak bersekat<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Intinya haploid<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Berbentuk benang hifa yang umumnya bersekat<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Multiseluler<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Bersifat senositik<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Cara reproduksi:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Seksual (Generatif)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Terjadi dalam 5 tahap, yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Hifa talus(+) dan talus(-) saling berdekatan karena aktivitas hormon. Di ujung benang hifa tumbuh gametangium yang mengandung banyak inti haploid (n)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Dinding gametangium pecah dan terjadi persatuan inti diploid (2n) yang disebut zigospora<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">c.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Zigospora menebal dan berwarna hitam. Inti diploid yang tumbuh hanya satu. Zigospora akan beristirahat (masa dorman) <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">d.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Setelah beristirahat, inti haploid mengalami pembelahan mitosis menjadi inti spora<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">e.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Jika sporangium matang, kadar air (gerak higroskopis) akan membuat kotak spora pecah dan sporanya tersebar membentuk miselium baru<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Aseksual (Vegetatif)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Pada miselium tumbuh cabang yang ujungnya memiliki kotak spora yang menggembung. Kotak spora tersebut akan pecah dan spora aseksualnya akan jatuh dan membentuk miselium baru<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Contoh-contoh Zygomycota:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Rhyzopus Oryzae<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">R. nigricans<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">R. stolonifer<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Mucor mucedo<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Ascomycota<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Ascomycota diberi nama demikian karena ia bereproduksi menggunakan askus sebagai alatnya. Jenis ini memiliki paling banyak jenis dibandingkan yang lainnya dan banyak dipakai di industry makanan. Cirinya adalah sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Hifa bersekat dan senositik<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Bersifat saprofit, parasit, atau bersimbiosis<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Alat reproduksi disebut askus<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Uniseluler dan multiseluler<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Cara reproduksinya adalah sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Seksual (Generatif)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Menggunakan askus yang menghasilkan askospora<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Aseksual (Vegetatif)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Tunas pada yang uniseluler (<i style="">Saccharomyces</i>) dan spora aseksual / konidia pada yang multiseluler<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Jenis-jenisnya:<o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> <span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Garamond","serif";">
<br /> </span> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Saccharomyces cereviceae<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Saccharomyces tuac<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Saccharomyces ellipsoids<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Aspergillus oryzae<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">A. wentii<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">A. niger<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">A. flavus<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">A. fumigatus<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">9.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">A. oryzae<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">10.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Penicillium notatum<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">11.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">P. chrysogenum<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">12.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">P. camemberti<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">13.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">P. requeforti<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">14.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Trichoderma<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">15.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Xyloria tabacina<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 40.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">16.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Neurospora sitophila </span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">&<i style=""> N. crassa<o:p></o:p></i></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Pada jenis ini, beberapa contohnya adalah dari Famili <i style="">Aspergillus</i>, dan beberapa lainnya ada di <i style="">Deuteromycota</i>, karena belum ditemukan cara reproduksinya.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Basidiomycota</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Basidiomycota adalah jamur yang disebut demikian karena memiliki alat reproduksi yang disebut basidiokarp. Cirinya adalah sebagai berikut:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Hifa bersekat<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Bersifat saprofit atau parasit<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Dapat berbentuk lembaran atau bertudung<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Tubuh buahnya disebut basidiokarp dengan tudungnya yang disebut basidium, yang mengandung basidiospora<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Cara reproduksi:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Seksual (Generatif)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Pada tudung jamur akan diproduksi spora generatif. Lalu, intinya akan menyatu menjadi diploid. Setelah itu, inti dari jamur ini akan menjadi empat dengan meiosis. Setelah itu, bungkusnya yang disebut sterigma akan pecah dan basidiospora akan jatuh ke tanah. Di tanah, ia akan membentuk miselium primer yang dikariotik dan memiliki ciri seksual. Miselium tersebut akan menyatu dan membentuk miselium sekunder yang dikariotik, dan dari sana akan dibentuk jamur yang baru.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Aseksual (Vegetatif)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Reproduksi vegetatif dengan konidia, kuncup, dan fragmentasi miselium.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Contoh Basidiomycota:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Volvariella volvaceae<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Auricularia polytricha & Auricula auricula<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Pleurotus<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Amanita phalloides<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Amanita caesarina<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Puccinia graminis<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">7.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Corticium salmonella<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">8.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Ustilago maydis<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">9.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Ganoderma aplanatum & Polyporus ginganteus<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">10.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Agaricus campetris<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Deuteromycota<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Deuteromycota adalah jamur yang disebut <i style="">fungi imperfecti</i> (jamur tidak sempurna) karena tidak diketahui reproduksi seksualnya. Jamur ini multiseluler dengan hifa bersekat dan bereproduksi vegetatif dengan konidiospora. Hidup jamur ini bersifat saprofit atau parasit.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Jenisnya adalah<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Epidermophyton floccosum<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Microsporium audoini, Trychophyton, </span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">dan<i style=""> Epiderophyton<o:p></o:p></i></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Scelothium rolfsii<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Helmintrosporium oryzae<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Malassezia furfur<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span></i><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Fusarium<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Pada jenis ini, beberapa contohnya adalah dari Famili <i style="">Aspergillus</i>, dan beberapa lainnya ada di <i style="">Ascomycota</i>, karena sudah ditemukan cara reproduksinya.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Pemanfaatan Jamur dan Pengaruhnya Dalam Kehidupan Manusia<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Jamur berpengaruh dalam kehidupan manusia seperti:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Zygomycota<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 58.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -22.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Rhizopus oryzae</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, untuk membuat tempe<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Rhizopus nigricans</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, menghasilkan asam fumarat yang digunakan dalam industri makanan dan pembuatan polyester<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">c.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Rhizopus stolonifer</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, jamur hitam yang membusukkan roti<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">d.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Mucor mucedo</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, saprofit pada kotoran hewan dan sisa makanan yang beracun<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Ascomycota<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Saccharomyces cereviceae</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, ragi untuk membuat roti<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Saccharomyces tuac</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, untuk mengubah nira menjadi tuak<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">c.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Saccharomyces ellipsoids</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, untuk fermentasi anggur<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">d.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Penicillium notatum</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"> dan <i style="">Penicillium chrysogenum</i>, untuk antibiotik<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">e.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Penicillium camemberti</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"> dan <i style="">Penicillium requeforti</i>, untuk mengharumkan keju<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">f.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Aspergillus wentii</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, untuk membuat kecap<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">g.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">A. oryzae</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, untuk membuat sake<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">h.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">A. niger</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, untuk menjernihkan sari buah<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">i.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">A. flavus</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, menghasilkan racun aflatoksin yang sangat mematikan<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">j.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">A. fumigatus</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, menghasilkan penyakit paru-paru pada burung dan manusia<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">k.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Trichoderma</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, menjadi sumber protein tinggi (SPT)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">l.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Xyloria tabacina</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, parasit pada petai cina<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">m.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Neurospora crassa</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"> & <i style="">N. sitophilia</i>, untuk membuat tape<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Basidiomycota<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Volvariella volvacea</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, jamur merang dapat dimakan<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Auricularia auricula</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"> & <i style="">A. polytricha</i>, jamur kuping dapat dimakan<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">c.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Agaritus campetris</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, kampegnon dapat dimakan<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">d.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Pleurotes</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, jamur kayu dapat dikonsumsi<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">e.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Ganoderma aplanatum</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"> (jamur akar merah) dan Polyporus gingaetum (jamur papan), dapat dijadikan bahan obat-obatan<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">f.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Amanita caesarina</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, dapat dimakan<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">g.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Amanita phalloides</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"> & <i style="">amanita muscarina</i>, hidup pada kotoran ternak, mengeluarkan racun muscarin yang menyebabkan kematian<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">h.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Puccinia graminis</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, jamur api yang parasit pada graminae, memiliki spora merah seperti api. Disebut juga jamur karat karena meninggalkan bercak seperti karat<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">i.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Ustilago maydis</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, jamur parasit pada jagung dan tebu. Tidak bertubuh buah<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">j.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Corticium salmonella</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, jamur upas menyerang batang karet, jeruk, dan melinjo<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Deuteromycota<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">a.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Microsporum audodini, Trychophyton, </span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">dan<i style=""> Epiderophyton</i>, penyebab kurap dan ketombe (kurap di kepala)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">b.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Epidermophyton floccosum</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, penyebab penyakit kaki atlet<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">c.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Sclothium rolfsii</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, penyebab penyakit busuk pada tanaman<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">d.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Helmintrosporium oryzae</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, perusak kecambah dan buah<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">e.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Malassezia furfur</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, penyebab panu<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -13.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">f.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Fusarium</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, menyerang tanaman kentang, tomat, pisang, dan tembakau<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 49.5pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Simbiosis Jamur<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Jamur dapat bersimbiosis dengan jenis lain. Contohnya adalah lichenes (lumut kerak) dan mikoriza<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Lichenes (lumut kerak)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Lichenes (dibaca liken) adalah contoh simbiosis mutualisme antara jamur dengan ganggang. Umumnya, yang bersimbiosis adalah Basidiomycota atau Ascomycota, dengan Cyanophyta(Ganggang hijau biru) atau Chlorophyta (Ganggang hijau). <span style=""> </span>Lichenes dapat ditemukan menempel pada batuan. Lichenes mengeluarkan enzim untuk menghancurkan batuan, seperti terlihat di Candi Borobudur. Lichenes bertubuh talus, yaitu tidak berbatang dan berdaun. <span style=""> </span>Reproduksinya aseksual saja dengan fragmentasi dan alat yang disebut soredia.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Cara kerjanya adalah dengan jamur mendapata bahan organic dari ganggang yang dapat berfotosintesis itu. Sementara, ganggang itu mendapat air dan mineral yang didapat jamur dan perlindungan dari kekeringan. Sebenarnya, cara kerja pastinya tidak benar-benar diketahui. Yang disebutkan adalah gambaran kasar saja.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Lichenes memiliki manfaat dalam kehidupan manusia, yaitu sebagai vegetasi perintis penghijauan dan sebagai indicator pencemaran udara. Karena ketahanan jamur, maka lichenes dapat hidup pada daerah yang kering sekalipun. Dari sana, ia akan memberi jalan bagi tumbuhan lain untuk berkembang biak. Sifat lichenes yang peka terhadap polusi juga dimanfaatkan. Apabila dalam suatu kejadian terjadi kematian lichenes dalam jumlah besar, maka tingkat pencemaran udara telah amat tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Contoh lichenes:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">1.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Parmelia acetabulum</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, berbentuk lembaran hijau abu-abu di pohon<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">2.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Graphis</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, berbentuk coretan pada pohon<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">3.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Usnea</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"> (lumut janggut), menggantung seperti rambut dari kulit pohon. Bahan obat TBC.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">4.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Cladonia rangifera</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, hidup di salju. Makanan rusa kutub<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">5.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Roselia tinctoria</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, indikator asam basa. Bahan kertas lakmus<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><span style="">6.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Centraria islandica</span></i><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">, bahan obat-obatan<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Mikoriza<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Mikoriza disebut juga jamur akar. Jamur ini<span style=""> </span>bersimbiosis pada akar tumbuhan tingkat tinggi. Jenis jamur yang dapat bersimbiosis adalah zygomycota, ascomycota, dan basidiomycota. Mikoriza berbentuk seperti serabut tambahan akar, dengan hifa yang masuk ke dalam akar. Terdapat tiga jenis mikoriza, yaitu ektomikoriza, endomikoriza, dan endektomikoriza. Pada ektomikoriza, hifa menemb sampai kulit luar (epidermis) saja. Dapat dilihat pada pinus. Di endomikoriza, hifa menembus sampai ke korteks. Contohnya ada di tanaman anggrek, kol, dan polong-polongan.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Mikoriza bermanfaat untuk membantu proses penyerapan air dan mineral oleh akar, melindungi akar dari kekeringan, melindungi akar dari infeksi jamur lain, dan merangsang pertumbuhan tanaman melalui hormon yang dihasilkan oleh hifa jamur. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Sumber :<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Susilowarno, R. Gunawan; dkk; Biologi untuk SMA/MA kelas X; Jakarta:Grasindo<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">Saktiyono; Seribu Pena Biologi untuk SMA/MA Kelas X; Jakarta:Erlangga<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">www.doctorfungus.org<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Garamond","serif";">www.biology-online.org<o:p></o:p></span></p> adminbelajarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/05777739124848995835noreply@blogger.com2